Table 1.

BCs regulate cellular redox balance and histone acetylation state.

BCs	Effects	Model	Mechanisms	Ref
Astaxanthin	↓ Oxidative stress ↓ Inflammation	In vitro	↓ ROS, ↓ NOX2 and COX-2	[119,145]
		Macrophage stimulated with LPS and H2O2	↑ SIRT1, ↑ NRF2, ↑ antioxidant enzymes ↓ NF-κB nuclear translocation	[146,147]
		apolipoprotein E-knockout mice	↑ NRF2, ↑ antioxidant enzymes	[148]
		Hepatic stellate cells	↑ NRF2, ↑ antioxidant enzymes	[149]
		Macrophages stimulated with ethanol	↑ SIRT1, ↑ NRF2, ↑ NAD+ levels	[30]
	↓ hepatic lipid	High-fat diet fed mice	↑ PPARα, ↓ PPARγ and Akt ↓ SREBP1c nuclear translocation	[109,156]
	↑ hepatic autophagy	Cerulein-induced acute pancreatitis in mice	↑ PPARα, ↓ PPARγ and Akt	[151]
Butyrate	↓ Insulin resistance	High-fat diet fed mice	↓ Fasting blood glucose and insulin ↑ PPARα, ↑ AMPK and p38	[160]
	↓ Inflammation	Colorectal cancer	↓ HDACs	[105]
	↑ Hepatic fatty acid oxidation	High-fat diet fed mice HepG2 cells	↓ HDAC3 activity ↑ FGF21 and PGC1α expression	[164]
	↑ Hepatic drug metabolizing ability	HepG2-C3 cells Primary human hepatocytes	↑ Aryl hydrocarbon receptor ↑ Cytochrome p450	[157]
	↑ Thermogenesis in brown fat	High-fat diet fed mice	↑ PGC1α and UCP1,	[156]
	↓ Glucose intolerance Insulin resistance	High-fat diet fed mice	↓ HDAC activity	[160]
	↑ Antioxidant effects in intestine	IEC-6 epithelial cells HT-29 colorectal cancer cells	↑ NRF2, ↓ HDAC activity	[166]
	↓ Inflammation	Human gut lamina propria CD4 T cell Murine splenic cell Human peripheral blood CD4 T cells	↓ HDAC activity ↓ Inflammatory cytokine production ↑ PPARγ signaling pathways	[167,168,169]
Curcumin	↑ Antioxidant	Oxidative or insulin-resistant conditions	↑ Keap1 expression and NRF2	[173]
		Obesity and diabetes	↑ Antioxidant function of NRF2	[174,175]
		Mouse skin Murine epidermal cells	↑ HO-1 expression and NRF2	[177,183]
	↓ Skin tumorigenesis	Mouse skin	↓ COX-2 expression, ↓ NF-κB activity	[176,177]
	↑ Apoptosis	Glioma cell	↓ Histone acetylation, ↓ p300/CBP	[172,178]
	↓ Inflammation	Mantle cell lymphoma High-fat diet-fed rats	↓ Acetylation state ↓ NF-κB activation and inflammation	[179,180]
		High glucose-induced monocyte	↓ NF-κB activity, ↓ IL-6 and TNFα	[181]
	↓ Hyperglycemia and Diabetes	High-fat diet-fed rats	↑ HAT levels, ↑ insulin sensitivity	[180]
		STZ-induced diabetic rats	↓ iNOS and TGF-β1 ↓ p300/CBP and NF-κB	[182]
EGCG	↑ Apoptosis in prostate cancer cells	LNCaP and PC3 cells	↓ HAT activity, ↑ cell cycle arrest ↑ p21/waf1 and Bax	[189]
	↓ Inflammation	High-fat/western-style diet-induced obese mice	↓ HAT activity, ↓ body weight ↓ Hepatic lipids and inflammation	[191]
		High-fat-fed rat (female)	↓ IL-1β and IL-6, ↑ SOD and COMT	[192]
Resveratrol	↓ Inflammation	RAW 264.7 cells JB6 cells	↑ Scavenge free radicals ↓ Lipid peroxidation and DNA damage	[111]
		Paraquat-induced lung injured mice	↑ SIRT1 expression and NRF2 activation	[21]
		Human colon-derived myofibroblast cells	↓ TNFα-induced ROS and ICAM-1 ↑ SIRT1 activation	[196]
		Jurkat lymphoid HeLa and H4 epithelial cells	↓ TNFα-induced NF-κB and MAPK ↓ cytotoxicity and caspase activation	[197]
		Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected mice	↓ TAK1, NF-κB and MAPK ↑ SIRT1 activation	[200]
		Diabetic rats Mesangial cells	↓ Fibronectin and TGF-β1	[201,202]
NR	↑ Antioxidant ↓ Inflammation	Ethanol-exposed macrophages	↑ SIRT1 activation	[31,205]
	↓ Lipid accumulation	Lieber-DeCarli ethanol liquid diet-fed mice	↑ SIRT1 and PGC1α activation ↑ Mitochondrial function	[48]
	Energy metabolism	Ethanol-exposed macrophages	↑ SIRT1 activation, HIF-1α activation ↓ GLUT1, PDK1, LDHα	[31]
SFN	↑ Antioxidant	Cancer cells	↑NRF2 activation ↑ Detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes	[212]
	↑ Cancer prevention	HCT116 colon cells Human embryonic kidney 293 cells	↓ HDAC2 and HDAC3	[213,215]
		Cancer cell lines	↑ ROS for initiation of apoptosis ↓ ROS during apoptosis ↑ Caspase 3 and 8, ↑ p21 and BAX ↑ NF-κB activation, ↓ HDAC6 activity ↓ HDAC1, 4, 5, and 7 ↑ Histone 3 acetylation, ↑ NRF2	[213,214] [220,223]
	Adipocyte differentiation	3T3-L1 adipocytes	↓ HDAC2, HDAC4, 5, 7, and 9 ↓ PPARγ, FABP4, FAS, ↓ p300 and C/EBPα	[215] [79,218] [225,226]
TGS	↑ Energy metabolism	Cardiomyocytes Skeletal myoblasts Vascular endothelial cells Epithelial cells	↑ Mitochondrial oxygen consumption, ↑ Cellular respiration ↑ ATP production	[233,234]
		Cardiomyocytes and neurons	↑ SIRT1/PGC1α axis, ↑ NRF2 ↑ Mitochondrial biosynthesis	[235,236]
	↓ Inflammation	Inflammatory condition	↓ NF-κB and proinflammatory cytokines	[239,240]
		LPS-stimulated microglia	↓ MAPK phosphorylation, ↑ CREB	241
		LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages	↓ JAK2/STAT3 activation	[230]
		CCl(4)-induced acute liver injured mice	↓ NF-κB subunit p65 and COX-2 ↓ ERK, JNK, and MAPK, p38	[242]
		Thioacetamide-induced liver injured mice D-GalN and LPS-induced liver injured mice	↓ TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, and caspase-1 ↓ liver fibrosis, ↓ NF-κB, p38/ERK ↑ SIRT1 and NRF2	[243,244]
		D-GalN and LPS-induced acute injured mice	↓ TLR4, ↓ NF-κB and MAPK	[245]
		Cancer cell lines	↓ EGF and EGFR phosphorylation ↓ ERK1/2, p38, and c-JNK activation ↓ ROS/ERK pathway, ↓ ERK-Akt pathway	[249] [250,251] [252,253]
	↑ Anti-diabetes	High-fat diet and STZ-induced diabetic rats	↓ Gluconeogenesis, ↑ glucose transport ↑ insulin production	[254,255]