Table 2.
Motivation-assessing interventional studies in stroke patients in rehabilitation setting.
| First Author | Year | Study Design | Study Location | Stroke Setting | Aim of the Study | Motivation Assessment Tool | Assessment Frequency |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bergmann J [44] | 2018 | RCT | Germany | SA | To evaluate the acceptability of robot-assisted gait training with and without virtual reality | IMI | After the 1st, 6th, and 12th week and after the crossover therapy session |
| Winter C [45] | 2021 | RCT | Germany | C | To evaluate the acceptability of robot-assisted gait training in each of three different experimental conditions (VR via HMD, VR via monitor, and treadmill training without VR) | IMI | After every condition |
| Guillén-Climent S [46] | 2021 | CT | Spain | DS | To assess the usability of a robotic device combined with a telecare platform, in which the training is based on serious games for upper limb rehabilitation in the home environment | IMI | On the last day of treatment |
| Navarro MD [47] | 2020 | RCT | Spain | C | To investigate the effectiveness and motivation of a group-based intervention, combining conventional and computerized multi-touch exercises, when administered in either a competitive or non-competitive manner | IMI | Before and after each intervention |
| Swinnen E [48] | 2017 | CT | Belgium | C | To examine stroke patients’ motivation and expectations of robot-assisted gait training (RAGT), and therapists’ perspectives on the usability of RAGT | IMI | Once |
| Prange GB [49] | 2015 | RCT | Netherlands | SA | To examine the effect of weight-supported arm training combined with computerized exercises on arm function and capacity, compared with dose-matched conventional reach training | IMI | Once (post-training) |
| Johar MN [50] | 2022 | RCT | Malaysia | C | To assess the effectiveness of game-based circuit exercise in comparison to conventional circuit exercise on functional outcome (lower limb strength, postural stability, and aerobic endurance), motivation level, self-efficacy, and quality of life. | IMI | Baseline, after 12 and 24 weeks |
| Hung NT [51] | 2021 | CT | USA (Illinois) | C | To assess tolerability and feasibility of home-based, high-dose “myoelectric interface for neurorehabilitation training” therapy | IMI | At the end of the 6th training week |
| Thielbar KO [52] | 2020 | RCT | USA (Illinois) | C | To compare participation and subjective experience of participants in both home-based multiuser virtual reality (VR) therapy and home-based single-user (SU) VR therapy | IMI | 2 and 4 weeks after beginning of the intervention |
| Nijenhuis SM [53] | 2015 | CT | Netherlands, United Kingdom, Italy | C | To assess the feasibility and potential clinical changes associated with a technology-supported arm and hand training system at home for patients with chronic stroke | IMI | After intervention |
| Nijenhuis SM [54] | 2017 | RCT | Netherlands | C | To compare user acceptance and arm and hand function changes after technology-supported training at home with conventional exercises | IMI | After intervention |
| Subramanim S [55] | 2014 | CT | USA (Illinois) | C | To assess adherence and intervention-related effects of gaming to improve balance control and decrease cognitive-motor interference | IMI | Pre- and post- intervention |
| Friedman N [56] | 2014 | RCT | USA (California) | C | To compare the effect of training with a specific robotic glove to conventional hand therapy | IMI | After each session |
| Lloréns R [57] | 2015 | RCT | Spain | C | To evaluate the clinical effectiveness of a virtual reality (VR)-based telerehabilitation program. | IMI | After treatment |
| Knippenberg E [58] | 2021 | CT | Belgium | SA + C | To evaluate the usability, credibility, and treatment expectancy of i-ACT (intelligent activity-based client-centred task-oriented training) and the motivation towards i-ACT use in rehabilitation over time | IMI | At baseline or after one training session with i-ACT, after 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 6 weeks of training, and 9 weeks after the cessation of training |
| Popović MD [59] | 2014 | RCT | Serbia | SA | To investigate whether feedback-mediated exercise (FME) of the affected arm of hemiplegic patients increases patient motivation and promotes greater improvement of motor function, compared to no-feedback exercise | IMI | Baseline and after three weeks of treatment |
| Novak D [60] | 2014 | RCT | Switzerland | C | To explore the potential of two-player game, played using two robotic devices designed for arm rehabilitation. Three game modes were tested: single-player (competing against computer), competitive (competing against human), and cooperative (cooperating with human against computer) | IMI | After each game mode |
| Chen L [61] | 2019 | RCT | China | DS | To compare the efficacy of motor relearning program versus Bobath approach | AES | After 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months |
| Radder B [62] | 2018 | CT | The Netherlands | C | To investigate the feasibility of a wearable, soft-robotic glove system developed to combine assistive support in daily life with performing therapeutic exercises on a computer at home | IMI | Once (at end of Phase 2) |
| Ahmad MA [63] | 2019 | RCT | Malaysia | C | To examine the effectiveness of VR games as an adjunct to standard physiotherapy in improving upper limb (UL) function and general health. | IMI | Before and after 8 interventional weeks |
| Rapolienė J [64] | 2018 | RCT | Lithuania | A | To evaluate the effectiveness of occupational therapy on motivation. | MHLC | Before first occupational treatment and after 20 occupational therapy procedures |
| Lin FH [65] | 2019 | RCT | Taiwan | C | To investigate the effects of routine rehabilitation activities and additional social support and health education by functional therapists on motivation and post-stroke depression | CES-D10 | At the 2nd week, 4th week, 8th week, and 4 weeks after the end of the study |
| Hung JW [66] | 2016 | CT | USA (Illinois) | C | To investigate the feasibility and potential efficacy of the video-controlled biofeedback system for balance training | IMI | At the end of the 6-week training |
| LaPiana N [67] | 2020 | CT | USA Washington | A | To assess the acceptability of a smartphone-based augmented reality game | Ad hoc developed questionnaire | At the end of the final gaming session |
| Huber SK [68] | 2021 | CT | Switzerland | C | To investigate the feasibility of a rehabilitation approach using user-centered exergames | BREQ-3 and the SMSC | At baseline and after 8 weeks |
| Graven C [69] | 2011 | RCT | Australia | DS | To assess the efficacy of an integrated approach (including written provision at discharge, additional phone contacts, and home visits) to facilitate patient goal achievement in the first year post-stroke | GDS-15 | At baseline and six and twelve months post-stroke |
| Morice E [70] | 2020 | RCT | Switzerland | SA | To assess the effects of dance program on patients’ balance control, cognitive function, strength, coordination, functional status, balance confidence, quality of life, and motivation | MAPS | Before and after eight weeks of intervention |
| An HJ [71] | 2021 | RCT | Republic of Korea | C | To investigate the effect of animal-assisted therapy on gait performance, pulmonary function, and psychological variables | SRMS | Before and after eight weeks of intervention |
| Adhikari SP [72] | 2018 | RCT | Nepal | SA | To examine the immediate effect of “action-observation-execution” with accelerated skill acquisition program (ASAP) on dexterity | SRMS | At baseline, after training, and during one-week follow-up |
| Thompson N [73] | 2022 | CT | United Kingdom | SA | To assess the feasibility and acceptability of delivering neurologic music therapy one day-per-week | Ad hoc developed questionnaire | Before and after each single session |
| Street AJ [74] | 2018 | RCT | United Kingdom | SA + C | To evaluate music therapy as a home-based intervention for arm hemiparesis | Ad hoc developed questionnaire | After 1, 6, 9, and 15 weeks |
| Morone G [75] | 2015 | CT | Italy | DS | To evaluate the feasibility of brain–computer interface-assisted motor imagery training to support hand/arm motor rehabilitation | QCM | At the end of each training session |
| Deguchi K [76] | 2013 | RCT | Japan | DS | To assess the usefulness of a novel computerized touch panel-type screening test | AES -VI | Unknown |
| Seregni A [77] | 2021 | CT | Italy, Spain | C | To assess the efficacy of a novel virtual coach system in assisting and counselling patients during home rehabilitation activities | Ad hoc developed questionnaire | Unknown |
| Chen HM [78] | 2020 | CT | Taiwan | A + SA | To determine whether motivational interviewing (MI) improves the performance of activities of daily living and enhances motivation for rehabilitation among first-stroke patients | RMS | Baseline, 6 weeks, and three months after the intervention |
| Aramaki AL [79] | 2019 | CT | Brasil | SA + C | To analyse the feasibility of a rehabilitation protocol using client-centered VR and to evaluate changes in occupational performance and social participation | PS | Baseline and after treatment (12 weeks) |
| Wissink KS [80] | 2014 | CT | The Netherlands | C | To determine therapy intensity of and motivation for physical therapy of geriatric stroke patients in nursing homes, its correlates, and the effect on discharge destination | PRPS | During three interventional weeks |
| Chowdhury A [81] | 2015 | RCT | India | C | To assess the validity of a rehabilitation protocol, characterized by a combination of mental practice (MP) and physical practice (PP), using a hand exoskeleton and brain-computer interface (BCI) | VAS scale | After each session |
| Song HS [82] | 2019 | RCT | Republic of Korea | C | To determine the difference in self-satisfaction by comparing class-based task-oriented circuit training and individual-based task-oriented circuit training | MRS | Pre- and post-intervention |
| Park JS [83] | 2019 | RCT | Republic of Korea | SA | To investigate the effect of game-based exercise on hand strength, motor function, and compliance | VAS scale | After every training session |
| Alhirsan SM [84] | 2021 | RCT | USA (Alabama) | C | To demonstrate the different effects of augmented feedback, simple VR, and exergaming applications on motivation and walking speed performance | IMI | After each condition |
| Grau-Sánchez J [85] | 2021 | RCT | Spain | C | To assess the efficacy of enriched music-supported therapy on cognitive functions, emotional well-being, and quality of life | IMI + AES | IMI: during intervention; AES: baseline, pre-, and post-intervention |
| Zhang L [86] | 2022 | RCT | China | C | To explore whether coaching-based teleoccupational guidance will help stroke survivors and caregivers to obtain satisfactory outcomes | IMI | Baseline and after 3 and 6 months |
| Rozevink SG [87] | 2021 | RCT | The Netherlands | C | To investigate the effect of robotic device combined with a telecare platform on the upper limb function of patients with unilateral upper limb paresis | IMI | Once (post-treatment) |
| Skidmore ER. [88] | 2015 | RCT | USA (Pennsyl-vania) | A | To examine the effects of a behavioural intervention, used to augment usual inpatient rehabilitation, on apathy symptoms | AES | Baseline and after 3 and 6 months |
| Cano-Mañas MJ [89] | 2020 | RCT | Spain | SA | To determine the effect of a structured protocol using commercial video games on balance, postural control, functionality, quality of life, and level of motivation. | Ad hoc developed questionnaire | Pre- and post-treatment |
Abbreviations: Study design—CT: clinical trial; RCT: randomized clinical trial. Stroke setting—A: acute; SA: subacute; C: chronic; DS: different stages. Motivation assessment tool—IMI: Intrinsic Motivation Inventory; AES: Apathy Evaluation Scale; MHLC: Multidimensional Health Locus of Control scale; CES-D10: 10-item Center for the Epidemiological Studies of Depression Short Form; BREQ-3: Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire; SMSC: Sport- and Movement-Specific Self-Concordance Scale; GDS-15: Geriatric Depression Scale—15 items; MAPS: echelle de Motivation envers l’Activité Physique en contexte de Santé; SRMS: Stroke Rehabilitation Motivation Scale; QCM: Questionnaire for Current Motivation; VI: Vitality Index; RMS: Rehabilitation Motivation Scale; PS: Participation Scale; MRS: Motivation of Rehabilitation Scale; VAS: Visual Analogic Scale; PRPS: Pittsburgh Rehabilitation Participation Scale.