Table 3.

Characteristics of included studies focusing on psychological risk and child sleep outcomes

No.	Author/year	Study design	Country/Region	Population	Exposure	Exposure measure	Sleep outcome	Sleep measure	Follow up time points	Adjusted variables	Study quality (NOSa)
1	Armitage et al. 2009* 65	Prospective longitudinal study	US	Pregnant women went into perinatal mood disorders or obstetrics clinics at the University of Michigan, and their infants	Pre-, and/or postnatal MDD	Structured clinical interviews for DSM-IV (SCID); EPDS; BDI-II.	SL (+), TSD ×, Nocturnal total sleep time (−), daytime sleep episodes (+); SE (−), and FNW (+)	Sleep diary; Actigraph	Twice: 2 weeks and 6 months of child age	Child sex and maternal medication use during pregnancy	8
2	Baird et al. 2009 33	Prospective longitudinal study	UK	Pregnant women at Southampton who were participants of the Southampton Women’s Survey (SWS) study, and their infants	Preconceptional psychological distress;	GHQ-12	FNW (+)	SDQ	Twice: 6 and 12 months of child age	The following variables were included as confounders: maternal age, possible postnatal depression, educational attainment, receipt of benefits, smoking and alcohol consumption during pregnancy, infant sex, birthweight-for-gestational age Z-score, breastfeeding, and bedroom sharing	7
3	Bat-Pitault et al. 2017* 66	Prospective longitudinal study	France	Participants in the Autonomic Baby Evaluation (AuBE) cohort study	Pre- and postnatal MDD	HAD; Structured clinical interviews for DSM-IV (SCID);	Macro sleep architecture: TSD (−); NREM (−); REM (−); SE (−); Arousal (−); Awake time (+); Micro sleep architecture: slow-wave activity (+); δ (+), lower spindle density (−).	Polysomnography	Twice: 0 and 6 months of child age	NA	7
4	Brandlistuen et al. 2015 67 and Ystrom et al. 2017 68 were the same cohort	Prospective longitudinal study	Norway	Participants from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa)	Prenatal antidepressants use (Brandlistuen et al. 2015); Postnatal maternal symptoms of anxiety and depression (Ystrom et al. 2017)	Self-report; SCL; DSM-III-R;	Sleep problems ×; FNW ×	CBCL sleep composite score	Three times: 6, 18, and 36 months of child age	Maternal concomitant use of other drugs, smoking and alcohol use during pregnancy, maternal age at delivery and parity, child sex, birthweight, and gestational age	7
5	Chuang et al. 2011 45	Prospective longitudinal study	Taiwan, China	Pregnant women attending the National Taiwan University Hospital for delivery and postpartum care from April 2004 to January 2005, and their children.	Maternal postnatal mental health; work stress	MHI-5; SF-36	Sleep problems ×	CBCL sleep composite score	Once: 24 months of child age	Parental age, education, and occupation; maternal smoking, passive smoking, drinking during pregnancy; Child sex, birth order, Apgar score, neonatal jaundice birthweight, gestational age	7
6	Dias et a. 2020 52	Prospective longitudinal study	Portugal	Pregnant women who gave birth in two public hospitals in Northern Portugal, and their infants	Pre- and postnatal MDS	EPDS	Sleep problems (+)	CSHQ	Once: 6 months of infant age	Maternal education	7
7	Galbally et al. 2018* 43	Prospective longitudinal study	Australia	Pregnant women from the Mercy Pregnancy and Emotional Wellbeing Study, and their infants	Prenatal MDD and antidepressants use	Structured clinical review for SCD-IV; EPDS; SDQ; Medical record; Maternal blood and umbilical cord blood test.	TSD ×; FNW ×; Wakefulness duration ×; SL ×	BISQ	Twice: 6 and 12 months of infant age	NA	7
8	Garthus-Niegel et al. 2018 39	Prospective longitudinal study	Norway	Pregnant women from the Norwegian Akershus Birth Cohort (ABC), and their children	Postpartum PTSD	IES	TSD ×; Nocturnal sleep duration ×; FNW (+); Wakefulness duration (+); Settling time (+);Sleep problems (+)	SDQ; BISQ	Twice: 8 weeks and 24 months of child age	Postpartum depression, anxiety, prenatal PTSD, maternal age, education, employment status, parity, obstetric complications, infant sex, birth weight, prematurity, and breastfeed method.	7
9	Goldberg et al. 2013 54	Prospective longitudinal study	US	Pregnant women from a prenatal stress longitudinal study conducted between 2003 and 2009 at a university medical center in Southern California, and their infants	Postnatal MDS; postnatal anxiety symptom	CES-D; STAI	Bedtime distress (+); Nighttime sleep issues ×; Bothered by nighttime sleep issues ×	SPQ; SDQ	Twice: 6 and 12 months of child age	Ethnicity/culture, infant sex and temperament	7
10	Halal et al. 2021 85	Prospective longitudinal study	Brazil	Participant from the 2015 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study (Pregnant women in Pelotas city who gave birth between January 1 and December 31, 2015, and their infants)	Pre- and postnatal MDS	EPDS	Mother-reported TSD ×, SL (+), TSD (−), FNW (+), and SP (+); Actigraph-measured TSD ×, SL ×, SE ×, nocturnal wakefulness ×, and number of night waking ×	BISQ; Actigraph	Once: 12 months of child age	Maternal age, maternal education, ethnicity, presence of partner of spouse, parity, abortion history, number of relatives, offspring living in the same household, planned pregnancy, antenatal care appointments, intragestational morbidities, physical activity during pregnancy, substance use during pregnancy, perceived spouse support, etc.	7
11	Kim et al. 2020* 14	Prospective longitudinal study	New Zealand	Pregnant women in the Growing Up in New Zealand prebirth cohort study, and their children	Pre- and postnatal MDS; Infant temperament	EPDS; IBQ-R VSF	Short night sleep duration (+); FNW (+)	SDQ	Once: 24 months of child age	Maternal and household demographics; maternal health and employment; parenting role expectations and child factors including sex, birth weight, gestation, parent-reported health or developmental problems, feeding method	7
12	Liu et al. 2020 30	Retrospective longitudinal study	China	Participants of the China Jintan Child Cohort Study	Pre- and postnatal MDS; Prenatal maternal happiness	SDQ	Postnatal MDS and Sleep problems (+); Prenatal happiness and Sleep problems (−)	CBCL sleep composite score	Once: 5–6 years of child age	Sociodemographic information collected included the child’s sex, age, residence (e.g., urban, suburban, or rural), cesarean birth complications (e.g. preterm) and maternal and paternal education level.	7
13	Matenchuk et al. 2019 16	Prospective longitudinal study	Canada	A subsample of 619 Canadian infants from the Edmonton site of the Canadian Healthy Infant Longitudinal Development (CHILD) birth cohort.	Maternal education level; Pre- and postnatal MDS	SDQ; CES-D	TSD (−);	BISQ	Once: 3 months of infant age	Maternal factors including maternal age, race, siblings at home, maternal prenatal smoking, and child factors including sex, gestational age at birth, birth mode, breastfeeding status, solids, and colic.	7
14	Petzoldt et al. 2016* 40	Prospective longitudinal study	Germany	Pregnant women from the Maternal Anxiety in Relation to Infant Development (MARI) study and their infant	Pre- and postnatal MDD and/or anxiety disorder	Diagnosed by the CIDI-V	Sleep problems (+)	SDQ	Four times: 10 days, 2, 4, and 16 months of child age	Sociodemographic features maternal age, marital status, years of education and employment, infant birth weight, week of gestation at birth, mode of delivery and sex of infant) and maternal report breastfeeding at 4 months.	6
15	Simcock et al. 2019 48	Prospective longitudinal study	Australia	Women at a major tertiary hospital in a flood-affected area of Brisbane who were attending antenatal clinics or who were already enrolled in another unrelated study (Midwives @ New Group Practice Options, M@NGO)	Disaster-related prenatal maternal stress	SDQ	Sleep problems (+)	CBCL sleep composite score	Once: 2.5 years of child age	maternal marital status, SES, perinatal maternal depression, current maternal mood (anxiety, depression, and stress) infant gestational age and birth weight	7
16	Toffol et al. 2019* 37	Prospective longitudinal study	Finland	Participants come from the Prediction and Prevention of Pre-eclampsia and Intrauterine Growth Restriction (PREDO) study	Pre- and postnatal MDS	CESD; BDI	TSD (−); SL (+); FNW (+); SD (+)	BISQ; SDSC	Once: 3.5 years of child age	Maternal age at delivery, BMI, parity, smoking during pregnancy, hypertensive and diabetic factors, child sex, gestational age, birth weight, child psychiatric symptoms	8
17	Cook et al. 2020* 70	Prospective longitudinal study	Australia	Participants from the Maternal Health Study, who were registered to give birth at one of the six public hospitals in Melbourne, and their infants.	Pre- and postnatal MDS, anxiety or panic attacks, maternal physical health and well-being, and IPV	EPDS; CAS; SF-36	FNW (+);Sleep problems (+)	SDQ	Four times: 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of child age	Maternal age at the time of birth, relationship status, country of birth, and infant sex	6

Note:

^*Study name followed by a indicates the study was included for statistical synthesis.

^aNOS: the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, with a NOS score of 0–4, 5–6, and 7–9 indicating low, medium, and high quality respectively.

Abbreviation: BDI-II: Beck depression inventory; BISQ: Brief infant sleep questionnaire; CAS: Composite Abuse Scale; CES-D: Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Inventory; CIDI-V: Composite International Diagnostic Interview for Women; EPDS: Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale; FNW: Frequency of night waking; GHQ-12: General health questionnaire; HAD: Hospital anxiety depression; IBQ-R VSF: the very short form of Infant behavior questionnaire-revised; IES: Impact of event scale; IPV: intimate partner violence; ISQ: Infant sleep questionnaire; MDD: Major depressive disorders; MDS: Maternal depression symptoms; MHI-5: Mental health index – five item; NA: not available; NREM: Non-rapid eye movement; PTSD: post traumatic stress disorder; REM: Rapid eye movement; SD: Sleep disturbances; SDQ: Self-developed questionnaire; SDSC: Sleep disturbance for children; SE: sleep efficiency; SES: Social economic status; SF-36: The 36-item Short Form; SHQ: Sleep habit questionnaire; SL: Sleep latency; SPQ: Sleep practices questionnaire; STAI: State-trait anxiety inventory; TSD: total sleep duration.