Table 6.
Results of Selected Studies.
| Authors | Experimental Design |
Nationality | Groups | N° | Sex (% F) |
Age (SD) |
Diagnostic Criteria |
Cognitive Reserve Assessment |
Cognitive Domain |
Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Algarabel et al. [30] | Cross-Sectional | Spain | MCI HC |
37 39 |
67% 74% |
74.95 69.75 |
Petersen [10] | Schooling, Job position, Leisure activities, Vocabulary (WAIS-III) |
Global Cognitive Functioning, Visuospatial Abilities, Language, Memory |
The MCI group exhibits worse performance in both memory tasks than HC. MCI with high CR exhibit better performance in implicit associative memory tasks than MCI with low CR. |
| Andrejeva et al. [31] | Cross-Sectional | Germany | aMCI aMCI+ HC |
49 222 65 |
40% 51% 61% |
66.57 (8.02) 72.27 (7.90) 69.56 (8.62) |
Winblad et al. [11]; Levy [42] |
Schooling | Global Cognitive Functioning | aMCI have a higher level of schooling than the aMCI+ group, which correlates with better cognitive functioning. |
| Franzmeier et al. [32] | Cross-Sectional | Germany | aMCI HC |
76 36 |
47% 58% |
71 (7.50) 75 (6.30) |
Petersen [10] | Schooling, Verbal IQ (ANART) |
Global Cognitive Functioning, Memory |
aMCI with high CR have better performance in episodic memory tasks than MCI with low CR. |
| Geda et al. [20] | Cross-Sectional | USA | MCI HC |
197 1124 |
41.1% 49.8% |
83 80 |
Mayo Clinic Revised [39] | Cognitive stimulating activities | Global Cognitive Functioning, Visuospatial Abilities, Executive Functions, Language, Memory |
Involvement in cognitively stimulating activities is associated with better cognitive functioning and a lower risk of MCI. |
| Liu et al. [25] | Longitudinal | China | MCI HC |
21 18 |
52% 33% |
68.5 64 |
DSM-IV [38] | Schooling, Job position |
Global Cognitive Functioning | High CR is associated with lower MCI risk and better cognitive functioning. |
| Kim et al. [26] | Longitudinal | South Korea | MCI HC |
22 22 |
77.3% 90% |
74.23 (7.50) 71.45 (3.95) |
Petersen et al. [35] | CRIq | Global Cognitive Functioning | MCI and HC differ in the “CRI-leisure time” section correlated with cognitive functioning. |
| Malave [27] | Longitudinal | USA | MCI HC |
1058 1226 |
43.29% 47.39% |
78 77 |
Winblad et al. [11] | LAQ, IQ (ANART, RPM) |
Global Cognitive Functioning, Visuospatial Abilities, Attention, Executive Functions, Language, Memory |
IQ and participation in cognitively stimulating activities (crossword puzzles and newspaper reading) are associated with a lower risk of MCI. |
| Soldan et al. [28] | Longitudinal | USA | MCI HC |
66 237 |
51.5% 62% |
63 (10.8) 55.7 (9.40) |
Albert et al. [40] | Schooling, NART, Vocabulary (WAIS-III) |
Executive Functions, Language, Memory |
High CR is associated with a lower risk of MCI and better cognitive functioning. Among participants who develop MCI, more rapid cognitive decline is observed in those with higher CR. |
| Solé-Padullés et al. [33] |
Cross-Sectional | Spain | aMCI HC |
12 16 |
80% 45% |
74.25 (6.18) 73.31 (4.90) |
Petersen et al. [36]; Lopez et al. [37] |
Schooling, Job position, Leisure activities, IQ |
Memory | aMCI have lower CR and worse mnesic performance than HC. |
| Xu et al. [29] | Longitudinal | China | MCI HC |
420 1182 |
72% 77% |
82.2 78.8 |
NINCDS-ADRDA [41] | Schooling, Cognitive stimulating activities, Social stimulating activities |
Global Cognitive Functioning | High CR is associated with a lower risk of MCI. |
aMCI = amnesic Mild Cognitive Impairment, aMCI+ = amnesic Mild Cognitive Impairment multiple domains, ANART = American National Adult Reading Test, CR = Cognitive Reserve, CRI = Cognitive Reserve Index, CRIq = Cognitive Reserve Index questionnaire, CDR = Clinical Dementia Rating Scale, DSM-IV = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV, GDS = Global Deterioration Scale, HC = Healthy Controls, IQ = Intelligence Quotient, LAQ = Lifestyle Activity Questionnaire, MCI = Mild Cognitive Impairment, MMSE = Mini-Mental State Examination, MoCA = Montreal Cognitive Assessment, NART = National Adult Reading Test, NIA-AA = National Institute on Aging- Alzheimer’s Association, NINCDS-ADRDA = National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke-Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders Association, RPM = Raven Progressive Matrices, SD = Standard Deviation, WAIS-III = Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III, WAIS-R = Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised.