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. 2023 Feb 28;24(5):4679. doi: 10.3390/ijms24054679

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Effects of vitamin D and its metabolites in calcium homeostasis, bone metabolism, and the immune system. Vitamin D₃ obtained from the diet or synthesized by photoconversion from sunlight is converted into the hormonal form 1,25(OH)₂D₃ by two hydroxylations occurring in the liver and kidney, respectively. After this conversion, 1,25(OH)₂D₃ circulates in blood to target tissues. The integrated actions of the 1,25(OH)₂D₃ hormone via binding to the intracellular VDR, to control calcium homeostasis in bone, kidney, intestine, and parathyroid, is shown above [64]. This figure was made using Biorender.com, agreement number UN24V0NHC0.