Table 2.
Nuts and inflammation and oxidative stress biomarkers—current evidence from randomized controlled trials and research gaps.
| Nut Type Reference [#] |
CRP | IL-6 | TNF-α | Adhesion Molecules |
OxLDL | Antioxidant Enzymes |
Oxidized Metabolites |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Almonds [32,51] |
↓ | ↓ | ↔ | ↔ | ↓ | - | ↔ |
| Brazil nuts [35,51] |
↔ | - | - | - | ↔ | ↑ | ↔ |
| Hazelnuts [36,51,52] |
↔ | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Pistachios [34,51] |
↔ | - | - | - | ↔ | - | - |
| Walnuts * [33,44,51,52] |
↔ | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | ↔ | - | ↔ |
| Other ** [30,31,51] |
- | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Adhesion molecules (E-selectin, ICAM-1, VCAM-1); antioxidant enzymes include glutathione peroxidase or catalase, superoxide dismutase activity or gene expression; oxidized metabolites include 8-hydroxy deoxy guanine, urinary isoprostane, MDA. ↑ Significant increase; ↓ Significant decrease; ↔ Null impact or conflicting findings; - Not sufficient evidence (i.e., gaps in research) * Walnuts affect inflammatory biomarkers while mostly null according to a meta-analysis [33]; exposure to walnuts for two years produced a more robust anti-inflammatory effect [44], which is reflected in this table. ** Other tree nuts (cashews, macadamia, pecans, pine nuts) and peanuts.