Table 1.
Solvent casting processing conditions of nanocellulose biobased composites.
| Reinforcement (Source) | Matrix | Solvent Casting Conditions | Mechanical Properties | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tensile Strength (MPa) | Young’s Modulus (MPa) |
Elongation (%) |
|||
| Polysaccharide matrix | |||||
|
NC (rice straw) [20] |
Corn starch | Solvent: water NC content: 0.25–1 wt.% Plasticizer: 25 wt.% glycerol Temperature: 85 °C Sonication for 5 min |
3.0–5.2 | 82.3–200.8 | 19.4–45.4 |
| CNC (biomass) [21] |
Chitosan | Solvent: 1 % v/v glacial acetic solution NC content: 0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 wt.% Plasticizer: 30 wt.% glycerol Agitation for 5 min at 15.000 rpm Sonication for 15 min |
34.0–43.8 | 1415.4–2221.8 | 10.9–27.9 |
| CNF (Orange bagasse) [48] |
Starch | Solvent: deionized water NC content: 5 wt.% Plasticizers: glycerol Temperature: 70 °C and 90 °C Agitation for 2 h at 1200 rpm Ultrasonication at 42 kHz for 10 min |
- | - | - |
| CNC (pea pod) [45] |
Chitosan | Solvent: 2 wt.% acetic acid solution. NC content: 0–10 wt.% Mechanical stirring for 15 min at room temperature |
52.2–73.4 | 880.0–1692.0 | 11.2–17.9 |
| BC and CNF (rice husk) [49] |
Yeast Biomass | Solvent: water. NC content: 0, 1, 3, and 5 wt.% Plasticizer: 25 wt.% glycerol pH: 6 and 11 Mechanical stirring for 1 min Homogenization at 125 MPa for 9 min. |
1.0–3.5 | 20.0–36.0 | 11.0–44.0 |
| CNC (pomegranate peel) [47] | Chitosan | Solvent: 1% v/v acetic acid glacial. NC content: 0–6 wt.% Plasticizer: 30 wt.% glycerol Mechanical stirring for 2 h at room temperature Ultrasonication for 5 min |
28.9–41.3 | 59.0–96.7 | 88.9–95.8 |
| CNF (açaí) [46] |
Chitosan | Solvent: 0.5% v/v acetic acid solution. NC content: 5–20 wt.% Plasticizer: 30 wt.% glycerol Mechanical stirring for 30 min at room temperature |
6.5–9.7 | 458.6–1119.9 | - |
| CNC [50] |
Chitosan-corn starch | Solvent: 1% w/v in acetic acid solution. NC content: 0–10 wt.% Plasticizer: 30 wt.% glycerol Mechanical stirring for 10 min at 90 °C. |
2.9–13.6 | - | 5.3–145.1 |
| CNF (Bamboo fibers) [51] |
Babul gum | Solvent: distilled water. NC content: 0–10 wt.% Plasticizer: 10 wt.% sorbitol Mechanical stirring for 30 min at 85 °C. |
0.4–3.7 | 4.8–71.7 | 17.5–46.0 |
| CNF (banana peel) [25] |
Corn starch | Solvent: distilled water. NC content: 0–15 wt.% Plasticizer: 25 wt.% glycerol Mechanical stirring for 30 min at 81 °C Sonication for 10 min |
7.0–9.0 | - | 20.0–25.0 |
| PVA matrix | |||||
| CNF (agave) [22] | PVA | Solvent: distilled water NC content: 0–10 wt.% Mechanical stirring for 30 min at 50 °C and 350 rpm. Ultrasonication for 2 min |
26.6–47.0 | - | 33.0–112.0 |
| NC [52] |
PVA-banana pseudo fiber | Solvent: distilled water NC content: 0–5 wt.% Plasticizer: 10 wt.% sorbitol Mechanical stirring for 40 min Ultrasonication |
28.7–43.8 | - | 87.4–183.0 |
| CNF (sugar cane bagasse) [43] |
PVA | Solvent: distilled water NC content: 0–50 wt.% Plasticizer: 70 wt.% PEG Mechanical stirring for 60 min Ultrasonication for 30 min |
26.5–85.4 | 954.0–2846.0 | 7.8–91.1 |
| CNF (olive tree pruning) [24] |
PVA | Solvent: distilled water NC content: 0, 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 wt.% Mechanical stirring for 4 h at room temperature. |
52.5–69.8 | 3587.0–4263.0 | 100.0–143.0 |
| CNC (sugar cane bagasse and coir fiber) [26] |
PVA | Solvent: distilled water NC Content: 0.5 and 2.0 wt.% Mixing Sonication for 5 min |
19.4–38.2 | 11.6–26.4 | 105.8–187.0 |
| CNF (Coconut shell) [44] |
PVA | Solvent: distilled water NC content: 2 wt.% Mixing at a warm temperature |
2.6–6.7 | - | 36.2–102.44 |
| PLA matrix | |||||
| CNC (office wastepaper) [23] |
PLA | Solvent: N, N-dimethyl formamide solution NC content: 1–5 wt.% Mechanical stirring for 4 h at 60 °C. Ultrasonication |
61.0–69.0 | - | 5.0–6.0 |