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. 2023 Feb 28;15(5):1219. doi: 10.3390/polym15051219

Table 2.

Melt-processing conditions of nanocellulose biobased composites.

Reinforcement (Source) Matrix Processing Conditions Mechanical Properties
Tensile Strength (MPa) Young’s Modulus (GPa) Elongation
(%)
CNC
(sugar palm)
[54]
PLA-Sugar palm starch Solvent: distilled water
NC content: 0.5 wt.%
Plasticizer: 15 wt.% glycerol and 15 wt.% sorbitol
Mechanical stirring for 30–45 min at 80 °C
Melt blending at 170 °C for 13 min and 50 rpm
Hot processing
- - -
CNF
(bamboo pulp) and corn starch [61]
PVA NC content: 0, 10, and 20 wt.%
Plasticizer: Formamide and water
Melt mixed at 150 °C, 30 rpm for 10 min
Compression molding
19.5–28.1 0.7–1.6 2.5–11.0
CNF
(cardboard) [56]
PLA NC content: 0–40 wt.%
Melt mixed in a Brabender at 170 °C, 60 rpm for 3–5 min
Compression molding at 175 °C
52.0–60.0 3.4–5.9 -
CNF
[55]
PLA NC content: 0–6 wt.%
Melt blended in a Brabender at 170 °C, 30 rpm for 30 min
Compression molding at 160 °C for 10 min.
68.5–76.1 2.9–3.3 -
CNF/CS [57] PLA CNF–CS content: 5–30 wt.%
Meltblended in a Brabender
175 °C, 60 rpm for 3 min
Compression molding at 180 °C
51.0–58.0 3.0–4.2 -
CNC (bamboo) [59] PLA/PBS NC content: 0–1.5 wt.%
20 wt.% PBS
Melt mixed at 175 °C and 60 rpm for 10 min
Compression molding at 180 °C and 150 MPa for 4 min
Postcuring at 50 °C for 24 h
69.0–86.0 8.3–10.4 12.0–18.0
LCNF (palm waste)
[60]
PLA NC content: 0–10 wt.%
Plasticizer: 20 wt.% PEG
Mechanical stirring and sonication at 30 °C
Melt compounding in a corotating conical twin-screw at 190 °C and 100 rpm for 5 min
12.5–20.0 0.4–1.4 2.0–100.0
CNF
(bamboo) [62]
Corn starch NC content: 0–5 wt.%
Plasticizer: 30 wt.% glycerol and 1 wt.% stearic acid.
Melt processing in a co-rotating twin-screw extruder from 90–130 °C.
Compression molding at 70 MPa and 130 °C for 5 min.
3.0–5.1 0.9–2.1 22.2–48.6