Table 2.
Reinforcement (Source) | Matrix | Processing Conditions | Mechanical Properties | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tensile Strength (MPa) | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Elongation (%) |
|||
CNC (sugar palm) [54] |
PLA-Sugar palm starch | Solvent: distilled water NC content: 0.5 wt.% Plasticizer: 15 wt.% glycerol and 15 wt.% sorbitol Mechanical stirring for 30–45 min at 80 °C Melt blending at 170 °C for 13 min and 50 rpm Hot processing |
- | - | - |
CNF (bamboo pulp) and corn starch [61] |
PVA | NC content: 0, 10, and 20 wt.% Plasticizer: Formamide and water Melt mixed at 150 °C, 30 rpm for 10 min Compression molding |
19.5–28.1 | 0.7–1.6 | 2.5–11.0 |
CNF (cardboard) [56] |
PLA | NC content: 0–40 wt.% Melt mixed in a Brabender at 170 °C, 60 rpm for 3–5 min Compression molding at 175 °C |
52.0–60.0 | 3.4–5.9 | - |
CNF [55] |
PLA | NC content: 0–6 wt.% Melt blended in a Brabender at 170 °C, 30 rpm for 30 min Compression molding at 160 °C for 10 min. |
68.5–76.1 | 2.9–3.3 | - |
CNF/CS [57] | PLA | CNF–CS content: 5–30 wt.% Meltblended in a Brabender 175 °C, 60 rpm for 3 min Compression molding at 180 °C |
51.0–58.0 | 3.0–4.2 | - |
CNC (bamboo) [59] | PLA/PBS | NC content: 0–1.5 wt.% 20 wt.% PBS Melt mixed at 175 °C and 60 rpm for 10 min Compression molding at 180 °C and 150 MPa for 4 min Postcuring at 50 °C for 24 h |
69.0–86.0 | 8.3–10.4 | 12.0–18.0 |
LCNF (palm waste) [60] |
PLA | NC content: 0–10 wt.% Plasticizer: 20 wt.% PEG Mechanical stirring and sonication at 30 °C Melt compounding in a corotating conical twin-screw at 190 °C and 100 rpm for 5 min |
12.5–20.0 | 0.4–1.4 | 2.0–100.0 |
CNF (bamboo) [62] |
Corn starch | NC content: 0–5 wt.% Plasticizer: 30 wt.% glycerol and 1 wt.% stearic acid. Melt processing in a co-rotating twin-screw extruder from 90–130 °C. Compression molding at 70 MPa and 130 °C for 5 min. |
3.0–5.1 | 0.9–2.1 | 22.2–48.6 |