Table 2.
Effects on obese subjects.
| Reference | Intervention | Control | Participants | Trial length | Immune immunomodulatory effect | Glucose metabolism | Lipid metabolism | Others | Body weight |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Varady et al. (22) | ADF | Before-after study | Obese | 8w | CRP: ⌀ Homocysteine: ⌀ Adiponectin: ↓, −30% (p < 0.05) Leptin: ↓, −21 ± 6% (p < 0.05) Resistin: ↓, −23 ± 6% | TC 4w: ↓, −20%(p < 0.05) LDL 4w: ↓, −31%(p < 0.05) HDL 4w: ⌀ TG: 4w ↓, −19% | ↓, −3.83%, on average 5.7 kg. | ||
| Varady et al. (2) | ADF | RCT | Obese | 12 m | CRP: ⌀ Homocysteine: ⌀ | Glucose: ⌀ Insulin: ⌀ | HDL: ↑ | BP: ⌀ | *↓, −6% |
| Peterson et al. (23) | TRF | RCT | Prediabetes | 5w | 8-isoprostane: ↓, −11 pg./ml (p = 0.05) TNF-α: ⌀ cortisol: ⌀ | Glucose: ⌀ Insulin: ↓(p = 0.13) | HDL: ⌀ LDL: ⌀ TC: ↑(p = 0.0007) | SBP: ↓, -11 mmHg (p = 0.03) DBP: ↓, -10 mmHg (p = 0.03) | *↓(p = 0.12) |
| Bowen et al. (24) | ADF | RCT | Obese | 24w (16w + 82) | CRP: ↓ | Insulin: ↓ Glucose: ↓ | HDL*: ↑ LDL*: ↓ TC*: ↓ TG*: ↓ | SBP*: ↓ DBP*: ↓ | *↓, on average 11.2 kg. |
| Haus et al. (5) | ADF | RCT | Obese | 24w | Adiponectin: ↓ Leptin: ↓ IL-6: ↑ TNF-α: ⌀ | Glucose: ↓, (p = 0.031) Insulin: ↓, (p = 0.115) HOMA-IR: ↓, (p = 0.031) | ↓, (p < 0.001) | ||
| Heilbronn et al. (25) | IF | RCT | Obese | 8w | TNF-α: ⌀ IL-6: ⌀ IL-10: ⌀ Macrophage: ↓ | HOMA-IR: ↓ | ↓ | ||
| Varady et al. (6) | TRF | RCT | Obese | 10w | 8-isoprostane: ↓(p = 0.02) TNF-α: ⌀ IL-6: ⌀ | Glucose: ⌀ Insulin: ↓, (p = 0.02, p = 0.04) Insulin resistance: ↓, (p = 0.03, p = 0.04) | LDL: ⌀ HDL: ⌀ TG: ⌀ | SBP: ⌀ DBP: ⌀ | ↓,3.2%(4 h) ↓,3.2%(6 h) |
| Zouhal et al. (26) | IF | RCT | Obese | 30d | IL-6*: ↓, (p = 0.02) TNF-α*: ↓, (p = 0.019) | AST: ⌀ ALT: ⌀ LDH: ⌀ Urea: ⌀ | ↓,2.7% (P = 0.002) | ||
| Mindikoglu et al. (10) | IF | Before-after study | Metabolic syndrome | 4w | leptin: ⌀ Adiponectin: ⌀ CRP: ⌀ Homocysteine: ↑ (p = 0.0004) IL-1: ⌀ IL-6: ⌀ IL-8: ⌀ TNF-α: ⌀ Gene-upregulated: AP5Z1, YPS8, INTS6, IGFBP5, POLRMT, KIT, CROCC, PIGR, CALU Gene-downregulated: POLK, CD109, SRGN, CAMP | HOMA-IR: ⌀ Glucose: ⌀ Insulin: ⌀ | TG: ⌀ HDL: ⌀ TC: ⌀ LDL: ⌀ | SBP: ↓(P = 0.023) DBP: ↓(p = 0.002) ALT: ⌀ AST: ⌀ GGT: ⌀ ALP: ⌀ Albumin: ⌀ | ↓(p < 0.0001), on average 2,5 kg. |
| Horne et al. (27) | IF | RCT | Metabolic syndrome | 4w/13w/26w | Galectin-3: ↑(p = 0.021) | ||||
| Heilbronn et al. (28) | IF | RCT | obese women | 8w | Gene-nonregulated: LIPE, ACACA, FASN, DGAT1 Gene-upregulated: PLIN5 Gene-downregulated: SOD1, SOD2 β-hydroxybutyrate:↑(p < 0.05) | ↓(p < 0.05) | |||
| Safavi et al. (8) | ADF | RCT | Metabolic syndrome | 4 m | CRP: ↓(p = 0.03) TNF-α: ↓(p = 0.60) IL-6: ↓(p = 0.49) PT: ↑(p < 0.001) APTT: ↑(p = 0.04) | Glucose: ↓(p = 0.03) | ↓(p = 0.02), on average 6.43 kg. |
WBC, White blood cells; NEUT, Neutrophile Granulocyte; PLT, Platelet; Hgb, hemoglobin; BCR/ABL, BCR/ABL gene; TT, testosterone; CRP, C-reactive protein; IGF-1, Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1; HOMA-IR, Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; IF, intermittent fasting; RCT, randomized control study; CML, chronic myelogenous leukemia; PCOS, polycystic ovary syndrome; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triacylglycerol; LDL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; AST, aspartate aminotransferase；ALT, glutamic-pyruvic transaminase；NK cell, natural killer cell; IL, interleukin; TNF, tumor necrotic factor; BP, blood pressure; ADF, alternative day fasting; TRF, time restricted feeding; TNF-a, tumor necrosis factor-alpha; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; GGT, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; VLDL, very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; Cr, creatinine; ESR, erythrocyte sedimentation rate; TSH, Thyroid Stimulating Hormone; T3, triiodothyronine; PT, prothrombin time; APTT, activated partial thromboplastin time; ⌀, no significant results; ↑, significantly increasing; ↓, significantly decreasing. Some changes in values and p-values are missing as they were not presented in the original manuscript.*Indicates that the p-value was calculated based on the final and baseline values of participants in the TRF group because no comparison was made between changes in values in a TRF group and a normal diet control group in the original manuscript.