Table 3.
Adjusted associations [β (95% CI)] for a two-fold increase in urinary pesticide biomarker (specific gravity-adjusted) concentrations with fNIRS brain activation (HbO) by task and region of interest in farmworkers from the Zarcero County, Costa Rica.
| Contrast | Hemisphere | Position |
Urinary pesticide biomarkers
|
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Insecticides |
Fungicides |
Herbicides |
||||||||
| TCPy | 3-PBA | DCCA | ETU | PTU | TEB-OH | 2,4-D | GLY | |||
|
| ||||||||||
| Encoding vs. recall (Sternberg test) (n = 48) | L | Inferior frontal pole | −1.89 (−3.65, −0.12)* | −2.06 (−4.24, 0.13) | −1.75 (−3.98, 0.47) | −0.65 (−2.48, 1.19) | 0.19 (−1.57, 1.94) | −1.65 (−3.27, −0.04)* | −0.79 (−2.98, 1.40) | 0.01 (−2.57, 2.60) |
| Superior frontal pole | −1.66 (−3.15, −0.16)* | −2.31 (−4.11, −0.51)*† | −2.24 (−4.06, −0.42)* | −0.56 (−2.12, 1.01) | −0.04 (−1.53, 1.46) | −1.01 (−2.42, 0.40) | −1.31 (−3.14, 0.52) | 1.01 (−1.17, 3.19) | ||
| Broca/Broadmann | −1.21 (−2.87, 0.45) | −1.82 (−3.83, 0.18) | −1.38 (−3.43, 0.67) | −0.13 (−1.82, 1.57) | 0.81 (−0.78, 2.40) | −1.09 (−2.61, 0.42) | −0.66 (−2.67, 1.34) | 0.01 (−2.36, 2.38) | ||
| Dorsolateral prefrontal | −2.30 (−3.90, −0.70)*† | −3.09 (−5.01, −1.17)*† | −3.03 (−4.98, −1.09)*† | −1.11 (−2.82, 0.60) | −0.29 (−1.95, 1.36) | −1.53 (−3.06, 0.00)* | −1.33 (−3.36, 0.71) | 0.34 (−2.10, 2.77) | ||
| R | Inferior frontal pole | −0.77 (−2.69, 1.14) | −2.40 (−4.65, −0.16)* | −2.22 (−4.50, 0.06) | −0.30 (−2.23, 1.62) | 0.73 (−1.08, 2.55) | −1.97 (−3.63, −0.30)* | 0.04 (−2.25, 2.33) | −0.16 (−2.85, 2.53) | |
| Superior frontal pole | −1.05 (−2.61, 0.51) | −1.91 (−3.78, −0.05)* | −1.98 (−3.85, −0.11)* | −0.11 (−1.70, 1.48) | 0.29 (−1.22, 1.80) | −1.22 (−2.63, 0.19) | −0.72 (−2.60, 1.15) | −0.06 (−2.28, 2.17) | ||
| Broca/Broadmann | −0.74 (−2.41, 0.93) | −2.28 (−4.22, −0.33)* | −2.12 (−4.09, −0.15)* | −0.24 (−1.92, 1.44) | 0.24 (−1.35, 1.83) | −1.31 (−2.79, 0.18) | 0.02 (−1.98, 2.02) | −0.46 (−2.81, 1.88) | ||
| Dorsolateral prefrontal | −1.16 (−2.99, 0.67) | −2.33 (−4.49, −0.16)* | −2.03 (−4.24, 0.18) | −0.65 (−2.50, 1.20) | 0.45 (−1.31, 2.21) | −1.40 (−3.05, 0.24) | −0.54 (−2.74, 1.67) | 0.19 (−2.40, 2.78) | ||
| No-Go vs. Go (n = 48) | L | Inferior frontal pole | −0.24 (−2.24, 1.77) | −1.51 (−3.93, 0.90) | −1.12 (−3.57, 1.33) | 0.76 (−1.23, 2.75) | 0.17 (−1.73, 2.07) | −0.10 (−1.94, 1.73) | 0.20 (−2.19, 2.58) | 0.89 (−1.90, 3.67) |
| Superior frontal pole | −0.99 (−3.36, 1.38) | −2.51 (−5.33, 0.32) | −2.43 (−5.28, 0.42) | −0.32 (−2.71, 2.06) | −1.48 (−3.70, 0.74) | −0.64 (−2.82, 1.53) | 0.02 (−2.81, 2.86) | 1.12 (−2.19, 4.44) | ||
| Broca/Broadmann | −0.52 (−2.68, 1.64) | −1.76 (−4.36, 0.84) | −1.60 (−4.23, 1.02) | 0.43 (−1.73, 2.59) | −0.06 (−2.11, 1.99) | −0.94 (−2.90, 1.02) | 0.56 (−2.01, 3.13) | 0.72 (−2.29, 3.73) | ||
| Dorsolateral prefrontal | −0.98 (−3.16, 1.20) | −1.98 (−4.61, 0.65) | −1.64 (−4.31, 1.02) | 0.43 (−1.77, 2.62) | −0.60 (−2.68, 1.48) | 0.30 (−1.71, 2.31) | −0.74 (−3.35, 1.86) | 0.72 (−2.34, 3.78) | ||
| R | Inferior frontal pole | −0.10 (−1.69, 1.48) | 0.25 (−1.69, 2.19) | 0.12 (−1.83, 2.07) | 0.38 (−1.20, 1.95) | 0.25 (−1.25, 1.75) | 0.29 (−1.16, 1.74) | −0.55 (−2.42, 1.32) | 1.52 (−0.64, 3.68) | |
| Superior frontal pole | −0.57 (−2.46, 1.32) | −0.71 (−3.03, 1.60) | −0.62 (−2.95, 1.71) | 0.09 (−1.81, 1.98) | −0.92 (−2.70, 0.86) | −0.12 (−1.86, 1.61) | −0.54 (−2.79, 1.71) | −0.05 (−2.69, 2.60) | ||
| Broca/Broadmann | −0.97 (−2.83, 0.88) | −0.66 (−2.95, 1.63) | −0.81 (−3.12, 1.49) | −0.26 (−2.14, 1.61) | −0.53 (−2.30, 1.24) | −0.13 (−1.85, 1.58) | −0.59 (−2.81, 1.63) | 1.27 (−1.32, 3.86) | ||
| Dorsolateral prefrontal | −1.60 (−3.43, 0.22) | −0.81 (−3.11, 1.49) | −0.96 (−3.27, 1.35) | −1.47 (−3.30, 0.36) | −1.85 (−3.54, −0.15)* | −0.83 (−2.54, 0.87) | −1.31 (−3.52, 0.89) | −0.92 (−3.53, 1.70) | ||
| Matching vs. control (Wisconsin Card Sort test) (n = 41) | L | Inferior frontal pole | −1.83 (−4.89, 1.24) | −1.82 (−5.85, 2.21) | −2.93 (−6.96, 1.09) | −2.04 (−5.27, 1.18) | −1.64 (−4.92, 1.63) | −1.49 (−4.78, 1.79) | −0.08 (−3.69, 3.53) | −1.52 (−5.84, 2.80) |
| Superior frontal pole | −1.41 (−4.05, 1.23) | −2.16 (−5.58, 1.26) | −2.53 (−5.98, 0.92) | −1.99 (−4.74, 0.76) | −0.83 (−3.67, 2.00) | 0.08 (−2.77, 2.93) | 0.05 (−3.04, 3.15) | −1.68 (−5.36, 2.01) | ||
| Broca/Broadmann | −0.75 (−3.81, 2.31) | −1.29 (−5.27, 2.69) | −2.12 (−6.13, 1.88) | −2.94 (−6.02, 0.15) | −2.83 (−5.95, 0.29) | −1.30 (−4.53, 1.94) | 0.48 (−3.06, 4.03) | −2.31 (−6.52, 1.89) | ||
| Dorsolateral prefrontal | −0.36 (−2.99, 2.26) | −2.44 (−5.77, 0.89) | −2.52 (−5.90, 0.86) | −2.33 (−4.99, 0.33) | −1.56 (−4.31, 1.18) | −0.35 (−3.14, 2.44) | −0.23 (−3.27, 2.80) | −1.81 (−5.41, 1.80) | ||
| R | Inferior frontal pole | −1.41 (−4.32, 1.50) | −1.45 (−5.27, 2.38) | −2.34 (−6.18, 1.49) | −1.37 (−4.46, 1.71) | −1.43 (−4.53, 1.67) | −0.95 (−4.07, 2.18) | 0.04 (−3.37, 3.46) | −0.53 (−4.63, 3.58) | |
| Superior frontal pole | −0.60 (−3.29, 2.10) | −1.11 (−4.62, 2.39) | −1.52 (−5.06, 2.03) | 0.16 (−2.69, 3.01) | −1.24 (−4.08, 1.60) | 0.59 (−2.28, 3.45) | 0.38 (−2.73, 3.50) | 0.43 (−3.33, 4.18) | ||
| Broca/Broadmann | −0.06 (−2.86, 2.75) | −0.55 (−4.20, 3.11) | −1.49 (−5.18, 2.19) | −1.11 (−4.05, 1.83) | −0.39 (−3.36, 2.59) | −0.43 (−3.41, 2.55) | 0.35 (−2.89, 3.59) | 0.64 (−3.25, 4.54) | ||
| Dorsolateral prefrontal | −0.81 (−3.29, 1.66) | −0.64 (−3.88, 2.60) | −1.39 (−4.66, 1.87) | −0.73 (−3.35, 1.89) | −1.79 (−4.36, 0.79) | 0.15 (−2.50, 2.79) | 1.25 (−1.59, 4.10) | −1.18 (−4.62, 2.26) | ||
Abbreviations: fNIRS, functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy; n, number of participants; L, left; R, right; ETU, ethylenethiourea; PTU, propylenethiourea; TCPy, 3,5,6- trichloro-2-pyridinol; 3-PBA, 3-phenoxybenzoic acid; DCCA, 3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)–2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylic acid; 2,4-D, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; TEB-OH, hydroxy-tebuconazole; GLY, glyphosate.
Models adjusted for age (continuous variable) and education level (≤6th grade, 7–11th grade).
*
non-FDR corrected p < 0.05
†
FDR-corrected p < 0.05.