The role of transportation in developing the tourism sector at high altitude destination, Kinnaur

Abstract

As a supporting factor, transportation is an important element of destination image that provides a base for the successful tourism industry. It is like the blood vessels of an area and is considered a determinant in developing a tourist destination. The article aims to characterize the status or problem of transportation accessibility in Kinnaur. GARMIN hand GPS (Global Positioning System) has been used to identify the damaged roads from their start to endpoints. In addition, a simple random sample technique has been used to register the opinion of 280 tourists about the transport facilities. Study results suggest that the bad condition of National Highway–22 is one of the barriers to tourism development in Kinnaur. There were no significant differences found between the selected destinations. Overall, the district headquarters, Kalpa, has been perceived significantly higher agreements by tourists. The government should ensure that the Border Road Organization, the organization entrusted with the responsibility of construction and maintenance of roads in international border areas, has sufficient resources to invest in transport development and its maintenance.

Introduction

Nowadays, the transport system is a fundamental component of the tourism industry and a prerequisite for the development in any region of the world (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2007; Schiefelbusch et al., 2007; Musa & Ndawayo, 2011; Currie & Falconer, 2014; Szymanska et al., 2021). A good transport structure increases travelers’ convenience to diverse destinations and is indispensable to enjoy more leisure activities (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2007). Tourism and transport infrastructure are interconnected and economically beneficial (Chen et al., 2021; Haller et al., 2020; Nenavath, 2021). Tourism and transport are not two diverse organizations, but they complement each other. Moreover, transportation is considered as a determinant of destination attractiveness (Robinson, 1976; Chew, 1987; Gunn, 1988; Martin & Witt, 1988; Inskeep, 1991; Chon et al., 1991; Hu & Ritchie, 1993; Gallarza et. al., 2002; Naudee and Saayman, 2004). It is the most necessary component, and basically, it offers accessibility to tourism. A country attracts more tourists with a good infrastructure of road and transport (Virkar & Mallya, 2018). Numerous scholars have suggested a positive link between road infrastructure and tourism activities (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2007; Liu and Shi, 2019) which directly impacted the development of tourism development (Nazneen et al., 2019; Kanwal et al., 2020).

Moreover, tourism infrastructure positively impacts residents’ quality of life (Mamirkulova et al., 2020). Certain studies have mentioned that if the destination is deprived of accessibility, tourism cannot occur (Chew, 1987; Prideaux, 2000). Accessibility constitutes one important consideration to tourism development in the drive for innovation and new recommendations (Gillovic & McIntosh, 2020). It is a major component and offers driving pleasure to the tourists. It refers to the ease of reaching goods, services, activities, and destinations. If it is uncomfortable, tourists will seek another destination. The topography of an area plays a significant role in implementing strategies/policies. It is difficult to have a good transportation network in mountain areas compared to plain and plateau areas. (Dhali & Dar, 2019). Transportation seems to be the lifeline of the trade, tourism, and commerce industry (Summers, 2000), and it provides certification for the development of connectivity (Grydehoj & Casagrande, 2019). The development of transportation at natural destinations may also negatively impact, i.e., air pollution, noise pollution, traffic congestion, overcrowding, and destruction of natural attractiveness (Kanwal et al., 2019; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2011; Park et al., 2015).

Therefore, more researchers emphasize green transport or sharing transport mobility. Recently, the introduction of electric vehicles by many companies such as Tata Nexon and Tigor, Mahindra E Verito, Hyundai Kona, MG ZS, Nissan Leaf, Mercedes-Benz EQC, Audi e-Tron, electric scooters, and many more has been instrumental in significantly reducing the environmental impacts of transport. But the technologies are in the initial phase of operation in India and are costly compared to combustion engine vehicles. Besides, taxi operators like Ola, Uber, and Bla-Bla carpooling systems are rapidly increasing in metro cities and inter-city travelling. The government of India has planned to shift different types of vehicles to the electric mode by 2030. In the state of Himachal Pradesh, the government has already started electric buses on an experimental basis in the Kullu–Manali area, a prominent tourist place in the mountain environment adjoining the study area (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/news/manufacture-himachal-specific-prototype-electric-buses-state-chief-minister-tells-ev-makers/articleshow/98381562.cms?from=mdr). So far, the experiences are encouraging, and it is expected that such an environment-friendly mode of transport will be introduced in the entire state in due course of time after laying down the re-charging infrastructure. This would certainly be a great step for sustainable tourism in the study area and relieve the environmental stress put on by the use of combustion engines by the vehicles entering the study area. In that context, accessibility requires a more comprehensive analysis in the recent planning paradigm.

Tourism has been recognized as one of the most important sectors of the economy for generating the livelihood of the local folks in Kinnaur. It is also a vehicle for sustainable poverty reduction and a major growth factor for the future. National Highway-22 is a major road in the cold desert destination of Kinnaur district in Satluj, Baspa, and Spiti valley. However, this road has been considered one of the “Deadliest Roads” globally. It has played a very important role in socio-economic development, trade and travel, defense, and tourism. Improved road connectivity in the freezing desert alleviates transportation constraints and attracts more tourists, boosting local inhabitants’ social and economic advantages. Hence, the article recognizes the role of transport accessibility to increase tourist footfall in Kinnaur. It evaluates their current status as well as associated problems. Transport is recognized as a potential basis for attracting tourism to such terrain, so it is necessary to evaluate transport infrastructure to regulate tourism activities in this ecologically fragile area.

Previous research

From the early times, the transport system has had a strong effect on tourism development (Kaul, 1985). Although several researchers acknowledge the necessity for effective transport in the successful program of tourism development but very little attention to the significance of transportation in destination development. Some researchers admit that there has a great link between tourism and transport but fail to identify any specific causal relationships between them (Gilbert, 1939; Gunn, 1994; Hall, 1991; Inskeep, 1991; Page, 1994, 1999; Robinson, 1976; Thurot, 1980). Several models are proposed by academics (Barrett, 1958; Barbaza, 1970; Butler, 1980; Lavery, 1974; Smith, 1992; Soane, 1993; Young, 1983) to describe the progress in tourism destinations; they recognized transport as a major factor in the growth process. The economic role of transport is as a bridge between the tourist (buyer) and the tourism services (seller).

Numerous studies have been done in different physiographic regions of the world. Gearing et al. (1974) reveal the attractiveness of Turkey’s tourist destination, and he stressed the development of transport infrastructure at the destination. Kaul (1985) has identified the significance of transport setup as a vital element in the effective progress of tourism, especially the creation of new attractions and the development of existing ones. Furthermore, Gunn (1988) states that tourists use multiple services, especially transportation. In other studies, in the case of Victoria (Canada) (Murphy et al., 2000), the case of Australia, the case of Turkey (Kozak & Rimmington, 1999) case of Sun Lost City, South Africa (Kim et al., 2000) and the case of 51 islands (McElroy, 2003) also emphasized the significance of transport infrastructure for a destination success. It is not possible to grow tourism without roads and other infrastructure (Crouch & Ritchie, 1999).

Most tourists of developed countries are familiar with modern and efficient transport infrastructure, and they also expect that experience to be in the destination country (Prideaux, 2000). Moreover, the various infrastructure elements interact with the tourists (Murphy et al., 2000). Australia’s Tourism Task Force (2003) states that transport infrastructure is a big part of linking tourism-generating regions to destinations. Naude and Saayman (2004) emphasize the importance of infrastructure in tourism development. The local government established an electric bus line around the Khon Kaen to respond to the citizens and tourism needs (Sorupia, 2005).

Similarly, automobile transportation makes tourism stress-free to perceive local culture and nations (Oter, 2007). On Phuket Island, the transportation system resolves the problems such as public transportation and improving the Island’s road network (Sakolnakorn et al., 2013). The Government of Thailand collaborates with a local organization in all the areas of north-eastern Thailand. In European countries included in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), progress in road infrastructure development could be associated with increased tourism spending.

The preceding review suggests that enormous work has been done in the field of transport’s role in the development of tourism. However, no study related to transportation has been reported on the cold desert, especially the Himachal Pradesh part of Himalayas, India. According to the Road Accident Data Management System (RADMS), of the state, there were 213 road accidents in Kinnaur during the year 2015–20 and consequently, occurred 205 fatalities and 353 persons became injured. To regulate and develop tourism as a sustainable livelihood option at high altitude destinations, robust transportation development is necessitated as a threshold benchmark to attract prospective travelers. It is in this context that the present study is an attempt to fill this gap.

The article consists of five sections; the introduction section presents the background of the study and a review of literature that focuses on transportation’s role in tourism development. Section 2 examines the study area characteristics briefly. Further, Sect. 3 analyzes the database and methodology to identify the actual condition of transport infrastructure. Section 4 discusses the results after applying the proposed methodology. Finally, Sect. 5 reveals the conclusions and recommendations.

Study area description

Kinnaur is a well-known tourist destination at high altitudes in the Himalayan region. It is situated in the northeastern part of Himachal Pradesh near the Indo-China border with 6401 sq. km (Fig. 1). With an average of 1,11,393 tourist arrivals per year from 1990 to 2020, Kinnaur gives huge exposure to tourism worldwide. The study area offers an extensive range of products, i.e., natural attractions, hiking, skiing, bungee jumping, rock climbing, mountain biking, paragliding, etc., that attract mass tourism. For the present research, three major tourist destinations, Chitkul, Kalpa, and Nako, have been selected. Spread on both sides of the Great Himalaya range that traverses through the state, well-connected by an all-weather motorable National Highway-22, popularly known as Hindustan-Tibet Road. After the construction of NH-22 along the river, many new riverside villages Bhabanagar, Wangtu, Tapri, Powari have spilled over closer to the river. Besides, many traditional villages Spillo, Kanan, Poo, Maling, etc., have also extended downwards to the road edge. There are several places, namely, Nichar, Kothi, Ribba, Moorang, Sangla, Rakcham, Chitkul, Namgya, Pooh, Chango, Nako, Leo, and Lippa that attract lots of tourists.

Fig. 1.

Map of the study area

Database and methodology

The study requires the collection of a wide range of primary and secondary data to comprehensively examine. Adequate care has been taken to ensure that all the data meet the research objectives. The data have been collected from government organizations and downloaded from the official websites of different departments (Table 1). The primary data required for achieving the stated goal were collected from selected destinations of Chitkul, Kalpa, and Nako in the Kinnaur district through a well-structured questionnaire. To analyze the road condition of different travel routes in Kinnaur, GARMIN hand GPS was used to point out the damaged road from its start to end portions. Data about bus services have been recorded from the schedule chart available at the Reckong-Peo bus stand, while a focused group discussion (FGD) was accomplished with employees of fuel stations.

Table 1.

Secondary data and their sources

Data	Weblink	Source
Number of Helipads	https://hpsdma.nic.in/Index1.aspx?lid=105andlsid=109andpid=89andlev=3andlangid=1	Himachal Pradesh State Disaster Management Authority, 2018
Length of NH in Himachal Pradesh	http://hppwd.hp.gov.in/sites/default/files/NH%20Length%209-9-2019.pdf	National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)
Major travel routes in Himachal Pradesh	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Himachal_Pradesh	National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)
Road length with conditions in Kinnaur	http://hppwd.hp.gov.in/district-wise-metalled-and-unmetalled-road-density	Public works department (PWD), H.P
Total registered vehicles	https://himachalservices.nic.in/economics/pdf/StatisticalAbstract_2018_19.pdf	Registration and Licensing Authorities of Himachal Pradesh
Bus services to Kinnaur	https://hpkinnaur.nic.in/service/hrtc-bus-ticket-booking/	HRTC online booking and Field visit
Number of fuel stations	https://himachalservices.nic.in/economics/pdf/StatisticalAbstract_2018_19.pdf	Food, Civil Supplies, and Consumer Affairs, Himachal Pradesh

Sample procedure

A simple random sampling method was applied to collect data from the tourists. A total of 280 samples were collected over the two weeks in June 2016. About 80 tourist samples have been collected from three selected tourist destinations. Moreover, 40 additional samples have been collected from Reckong-Peo, the new district headquarters of Kinnaur (about 13 km. from Kalpa), which is the center of whole tourism activities. In Nako and Chitkul, only 10 to 30 tourists visited per day during the survey period. In addition, there is only one daily bus service between headquarters and some destinations like Nako in Kinnaur and Kaza in Lahaul and Spiti. Therefore, collecting such a large number of samples had consumed a lot of time, and a further increase in samples was not possible because the next month was July, which falls in the rainy monsoon season. There is a sharp decline in travelers during the rainy season because of frequent landslides and shooting stones. The emphasis has always been on collecting representative samples for good research results. Hence, 280 interviews of tourists were conducted in 2016 during the peak tourist month, June, before the rainy period to avoid extreme weather conditions and incidences of landslides. It remains cut off from the rest of the country during the winter season due to climate constraints and poor transportation infrastructure.

Survey instrument

A questionnaire is the most commonly used instrument to gather survey data. The questionnaire is comprised of three sections. The first section was structured to characterize a tourist’s gender, age, education level, occupation, place of residence, etc. The second section includes questions related to the visitor’s journey to the destination. The last section is concerned with respondents’ perceptions about the destination (Questionnaire attached in appendix). Tourist perceptions were recorded on a five-point Likert scale, from score 1 (negative) to score 5 (positive).

Data analysis

In a comparative analysis, the quality of particular characteristics allows us to compare that with others. After reviewing the literature, the tourism infrastructure has been classified into four broad categories. The study focused on accessibility and transport services that are major physical infrastructure components. Table 2 shows the types of facilities characterized by the author that fit in the study area. In the context of road conditions of major travel routes, the Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to determine the coordinates of road conditions. The road conditions have been classified as:

• Good condition—road with a good surface layer or without damage

• Partially damaged road—road having upper layer washed out or under maintenance

• Fully damaged road—a road that completely or mostly washed away

Table 2.

Types of facilities characterized by the author

Components	Types of facilities/services/amenities	Facility/service/amenity
Physical	Accessibility	Rail connectivity
		Air connectivity
		Road connectivity
		Road length with conditions
	Transport services	Bus services
		Mode of transport chosen by tourists
		Fuel station

The Google earth image was digitized through the ArcGIS 10.4 software for the mapping. Besides, a traffic flow diagram was prepared for understanding the routes from and to the destination. In addition, skewness and kurtosis have been examined to measure the data symmetry. If the distribution is close to 0 value, it is probably close to normal. The correlation coefficient has been calculated to identify any relationship between the destinations. After that, the ANOVA test and Tukey test were conducted to examine the differences in tourist perceptions as well as to compare all the possible pairs of means at the statistical significance level of 0.05 (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; Tosun, 2002; Singla, 2014; Hritz & Ross, 2010; Turker and Ozturk, 2013; Karnchanan, 2011 and Brida et al., 2012). Lastly, a radar diagram has been used for the graphical representation of differences between items at the selected destinations.

Results and discussion

Tourist profile

The socio-demographic variables include individual and personal characteristics such as nationality, gender, age, religion, marital status, education level, language known, and occupation. Researchers have identified the differences in the perception depending on these variables (Beerli and Mart, 2004; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). These characteristics influence tourists’ attitudes toward tourism development (Harrill, 2004). The ratio between male and female tourists was 73.50 to 26.50. The share of international tourists was about 26 percent coming from 19 countries. The majority of the tourists were aged 21 to 40 years, whereas those aged less than 15 or older than 60 were insignificant, suggesting that the harsh terrain conditions are challenging to some age groups and females. The analysis reveals that the largest proportion (65.3 percent) of tourists were Hindu, followed by Jewish (11.8 percent), Sikhs, Christians, and Buddhists. Approximately 60 percent of tourists completed graduation and university degrees. About half of the tourists were married. Tourists engaged in their own business (36.0 percent) constituted the largest share, followed by students (24.9 percent). Most of the tourists were comfortable speaking Hindi and/or English; however, many were well versed in multiple languages (Table 3).

Table 3.

Demographic profile of surveyed tourist’s (N = 280) Source: Field survey, 2016

Variables	Categories	Percent of respondents
		Chitkul	Kalpa	Nako	Kinnaur
Nationality	Indian	77.50	65.83	70.49	74.00
	Foreign	22.50	34.17	29.51	26.01
Sex	Male	70.00	70.83	77.05	73.53
	Female	30.00	29.17	22.95	26.48
Age	Below 20 years	11.25	3.33	6.56	7.05
	21–30 years	56.25	46.67	36.07	46.33
	31–40 years	15.00	21.67	37.70	24.79
	41–50 years	8.75	11.67	16.39	12.27
	51 + years	8.75	16.67	3.28	9.57
Religion	Hindu	65.00	59.17	65.57	65.29
	Muslim	1.25	0.00	0.00	0.63
	Sikh	11.25	4.17	4.92	8.09
	Christen	2.50	12.50	8.20	5.35
	Buddhism	0.00	5.83	3.28	3.04
	Jewish	13.75	8.33	9.84	11.80
	Jedi	1.25	0.00	1.64	1.45
	Atheist	2.50	6.67	1.64	2.07
	Other	2.50	3.33	4.92	3.71
Education level	No formal qualification	2.50	3.33	1.64	2.07
	Matric	8.75	5.00	18.03	13.39
	Secondary	6.25	9.17	11.48	8.87
	Under graduate	36.25	31.67	16.39	26.32
	Post graduate	28.75	26.67	37.70	33.23
	Others professional degree/diploma	17.50	24.17	14.75	16.13
Marital status	Married	32.50	47.50	65.57	49.04
	Unmarried	67.50	49.17	34.43	50.97
	Divorced	0.00	3.33	0.00	1.67
Language known	Hindi	66.25	61.67	72.13	69.19
	English	62.50	84.17	85.25	73.88
	Punjabi	37.50	12.50	19.67	28.59
	Hebrew	17.50	9.17	9.84	13.67
	German	2.50	3.33	3.28	2.89
	French	0.00	5.00	1.64	2.21
	Hindi + English	47.50	54.17	40.98	47.55
	English + Any others foreigner language	11.25	17.50	8.20	12.32
	Hindi + English + Any others foreigner language	2.50	3.33	3.28	3.04
Occupation	Student	35.00	19.17	14.75	24.88
	Govt. job	8.75	14.17	13.11	10.93
	Pvt. Job	20.00	28.33	8.20	14.10
	Own business	21.25	25.00	50.82	36.04
	Retired	1.25	4.17	1.64	1.45
	Unemployed	13.75	4.17	4.92	9.34
	Agricultural	0.00	1.67	0.00	0.56
	Housewife	0.00	3.33	0.00	1.11
	Others	0.00	0.00	6.56	2.19

Seasonality in tourism

The seasonal pattern of tourist arrivals has been detected in two peak seasons in Kinnaur, which are ‘May–June’ and ‘September–October’ (Fig. 2). The May–June season is the most favorable tourist season in Kinnaur and entire hilly areas due to the scorching summer season added by the vacation period in surrounding plain areas. While September–October months are considered as mini peak season in Kinnaur. Though upper Kinnaur is a cold desert area, heavy rainfall occurred during the month of July–August in lower Kinnaur. Besides, the winter months (December, January, February, and March) are marked as lean months due to extremely low temperatures and heavy snowfall in Kinnaur. Both climatic phenomena trigger landslides and worked as constraints in the development of tourism in the study area. There is a need to develop good road infrastructure like in Europe and Russia that minimize the impact of natural constraints at high altitudes.

Fig. 2.

Seasonal index of tourist arrivals in Kinnaur, 1991–2020

Accessibility to the Kinnaur

By rail

There are no direct rail services to Kinnaur, and the nearest railway station is at Shimla. It is a narrow-gauge railway line (Kalka–Shimla railway line distance of 96 km.) and is around 226 km. from Kinnaur (Fig. 3). It is one of the UNESCO world heritage sites.

Fig. 3.

Major travel routes to Kinnaur

By air

Similarly, there is no direct flight to Kinnaur from any airport like rail networks. The nearest airport at Shimla is around 226 km. from Reckong-Peo, the district headquarter. Shimla airport is also connected to Delhi and Kullu, which provides air accessibility to the destination. Moreover, 11 helipads have been constructed in Kinnaur for strategic reasons and natural disaster rescue operations (Himachal Pradesh State Disaster Management Authority, 2018). In the context of selected destinations, Nako and Reckong-Peo, ITBP has helipads that can be used by Indian defense forces for tourists in adverse situations (Fig. 3).

By road

Road transport is a major mode of access to Kinnaur through which tourists can reach the destination directly. Also, most tourists preferred road mode to explore the Himalayas, which makes them understand the geomorphology and geology of the Himalayas more closely and instills self-confidence and energy. Moreover, the Trans-Himalayan rough terrain acts as a barrier to constructing railway lines and developing airports. The frequent trip circle used by tourists is Chandigarh–Shimla–Narkanda–Reckong-Peo–Kalpa–Nako–Kaza–Rohtang–Manali–Chandigarh, mainly covered by NH-21 and NH-22. Some of the tourists preferred Shimla–Narkanda–Reckong-Peo–Kalpa–Nako–Kaza–Rohtang Pass–Keylong–Leh Ladakh and the back trip circle. The major route to reach the destination is NH-22 which directly connects it with Shimla (state capital), Chandigarh (state capital of both Haryana and Punjab), and Delhi (national capital).

National highway -22

The National Highway -22 is an important route for socio-economic sectors, trade and travel, defense, and tourism. The route is the lifeline of Solan, Shimla, and Kinnaur districts connecting the new townships Reckong-Peo, Bhavanagar, Jhakri, and Jari. The old recognize towns are Theog, Narkanda, Ani, Nirmand, Rampur, Pooh, and Tapri on this route. This route is known as the ‘Hindustan-Tibet road,’ or ‘Silk route’ that starts from Ambala (Haryana) to Kaurik (Indo-Tibet border) and represents its strategic importance. The route also provides direct connectivity to Shimla, Chandigarh, and the national capital Delhi through National Highway-1 (now re-designated as NH-44). The road was featured on the ‘History Channel’ as one of the “Deadliest Roads” in the world (https://www.financialexpress.com/auto/car-news/5-most-dangerous-roads-in-india-think-twice-before-taking-these-routes/1539265/). On this route, a police post has been put at Sumdo where foreigners have to submit their permits to enter the protected area of Kinnaur.

Other route connectivity with National Highway

Apart from National Highway-22, other state highways and national highways that connect Kinnaur to other states or destinations play an important role in the accessibility to Kinnaur (Table 4). The NH-20 provides a comfortable journey for tourists coming from northern Punjab, and its connection with NH-21 moves tourists to Kinnaur from the side of Lahaul and Spiti. Similarly, NH-70 connects it to Punjab state. Mandi district is the joining point of NH-20, NH-70, and NH-21, providing a way to the destination from the Lahaul and Spiti route. Moreover, NH-72 connects Kinnaur with Uttrakhand and Haryana state that joins NH-22 to reach the destination (Fig. 3). A connection between Kalpa–Reckong Peo–Powari will be provided through NH-5, a newly constructed national highway in Kinnaur.

Table 4.

Major national highways in Himachal Pradesh as on 09.09.2019.

Source: http://hppwd.hp.gov.in/sites/default/files/NH%20Length%209-9-2019.pdf

National Highway		Route	Length (Km.)
Old	New
70	03	Punjab border—Hamirpur—Toni Devi- Awa Devi- Mandi- Kullu–Manali–Gramphoo–Keylong	540.39
72	07	Haryana border—Paunta Sahib—Uttrakhand border	56.20
21	154	Manali—Mandi—Sundernagar—Bilaspur—Jogindernagar -Punjab border	267.80
22	05	Indo—China border near Shipkila—Chini—Rampur—Narkanda –Theog—Shimla—Solan—Parwanoo—Haryana border	415.53
20		Mandi—Kotla—Punjab border	196.8
5	505A	Kalpa—Reckong Peo—Powari	20

NHAI: National Highway Authority of India

Other route connectivity with state highway

One of the most traveled routes selected by bikers is Reckong-Peo-Nako-Kaza-Keylong-Leh-Ladakh. The Leh–Keylong highway, which is part of the Leh–Manali highway, connects Jammu and Kashmir with Himachal Pradesh and Kinnaur. It is the major road selected by tourists who come from the side of Jammu and Kashmir. Also, this route has significance for tourists who visit Leh–Ladakh via Kinnaur (Fig. 3).

Accessibility within the Kinnaur

The major mode of transport within Kinnaur is a road, and NH-22 is the district’s lifeline. Although it connects the major villages or tourist destinations, it is not maintained adequately and needs to develop the travel route infrastructure of high quality to link tourist spots. The total length of the road, including national highways, was 1134 km. in the year 2018–19. Most of the roads mounted in the district are motorable with a single lane (839 km.). Length of about 45 Kilometers of the motorable road is a double lane that provides comfortable and safe driving in the district. However, due to the tough terrain in a high mountain area, it does not have any motorable four-lane road. (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Road length with conditions in Kinnaur, 2018–19. Note: Road length includes NH and border roads Source: Public Works Department, H.P

Table 5 statistics represent the total metalled and un-metalled road length in Kinnaur. The roads in the district are under the Public Works Department for construction and maintenance. However, beyond Pooh Tehsil toward the Tibet border, the work of maintenance is regularly done by BRO (Border Road Organization) due to its strategic importance. The destination has an international border with Tibet and China; thus, the location is important for the country. The development of roads is very poor as of December 2020, though it has improved a lot compared to earlier conditions. The result of derived information indicates that the density of the road per 100 sq. km. is very low due to its tough terrain, low density of population, and political apathy. The density of metalled roads is 8.42 km per 100 km2 which is the lowest among all the districts except Lahaul and Spiti (4.97 km. per 100 km2) and far less than the state average (51.92 km. per 100 km2). The destination is located in a cold desert condition where life is too difficult, and due to that situation, the district is very sparsely populated. The area is under the tribal region of the state. Thus, the road density per 1000 persons is much better than the rest of the state of Himachal Pradesh. The climate of high-altitude destinations has many effects on tourist arrivals. The density of un-metalled roads which constitutes 35% of the total road length, per 100 km2 and per1000 persons was 4.50 and 3.42, respectively. Therefore, the seasonality in transport is a challenge for planners because the road is open for transportation during the summers (April to June) and autumn months of September–October. The destinations are not easily accessible for tourists during rainy and winter seasons due to poor maintenance of major and rural roads and highly inadequate resources such as snow removing machines with the PWD and BRO. No doubt, NH-22 provides good connectivity, but it also lacks a desirable level of maintenance, especially in geological weaker sections near Karcham and Powari of Kinnaur district, where landslides and shooting stone is a perennial problem during snowfall and rainfall. These two points are serious threats to tourism as many causalities have happened here in the recent past, which has jolted the confidence of prospective travelers.

Table 5.

Metalled and un-metalled road density as on 31.10.2020

Categories	Kinnaur			Himachal Pradesh
	Metalled	Un-metalled	Total	Metalled	Un-metalled	Total
Total length (km.)	539	288	827	28,908	9127	38,035
Road density per 100 Sq. km	8.42	4.50	12.92	51.92	16.39	68.31
Road density per 1000 persons	6.39	3.42	9.81	4.22	1.33	5.55

Area of Kinnaur 6401 sq. km. and Himachal Pradesh 55,673 sq. km

Population of Kinnaur 84,121 persons and Himachal Pradesh 6,864,502 persons (Census, 2011)

Source: http://hppwd.hp.gov.in/district-wise-metalled-and-unmetalled-road-density

Public Works Department, H.P

Road condition of major travel route: NH-22

As discussed, NH-22 is the Kinnaur district’s lifeline and the major route that connects Kinnaur with major centers such as Shimla, Chandigarh, and Delhi. The road is four-lane up to Kalka, and further, the construction by NHAI (National Highway Authority, India) is in progress to convert it into a four-lane till Shimla, the capital of the state. Kalka-Solan’s four-lane section has been operationalized, and work is in progress between Solan and Shimla. The expansion of roads would also provide easy accessibility to tourist destinations and increase the bear of vehicles. Moreover, such types of transport deliver a comfortable drive and escape from road accidents. The authors, through field visits, examined that the bad condition of NH-22 starts from Narkanda. About 24.15 km of the road is partially damaged between Narkanda to Jeori (Kinnaur’s entry point). The surveying team has identified 11 big damaged patches in Kinnaur. Thus, the road is not only partially or fully damaged, but also the length of each patch is more than 3 km. which would be problematic and unsafe for travelers in such topography. In Kinnaur, around 43.45 percent of the total road length is not in good condition. The total length surveyed through field visits is 262.1 km. out of which 113.92 km of road length is damaged (Table 6). The government should take stringent steps to check and ensure that it is well maintained by entrusted agencies, the PWD, and BRO because the road is significant for travel and strategically important. (Fig. 5).

Table 6.

Road condition of major travel routes in Kinnaur Source: Area examined by the author through GPS, 2016

Major roads and travel routes	Categories of road condition			Total length (Km.)
	Good	Partially damaged	Fully damaged
Jeori to Karcham	23.6	12.41	17.99	54
Karcham to Reckong-Peo	9.56	4.91	8.53	23
ReckongPeo to Kalpa	3.1	0.00	0.00	3.1
ReckongPeo to Nako	65.86	33.28	3.86	103
Nako to Sumdo	29.53	6.47	0.00	36
Karcham to Sangla	6.8	9.96	2.24	19
Sangla to Chitkul	9.73	11.91	2.36	24
Total length (Km.)	148.18	78.94	34.98	262.1

Fig. 5.

Length wise road condition of major travel routes in Kinnaur.

Source: Area examined by the author through GPS, 2016

Figure 6 shows the major travel routes and their condition in terms of good, partially damaged and fully damaged. Undoubtedly, the vulnerable physiography and hazard susceptibility produce challenges for road construction and its maintenance in highland areas of the state. It is also the main cause of low road density and damaged roads. According to the Geological Survey of India (GSI), the state is broadly divided into 5 physiographic zones—Alluvial plain, Shivalik foothills, Lesser Himalayas, Central, and Trans Himalayas. National Highway-22 passes through four physiographic zones except for Trans Himalayas; in the alluvial plain and Shivalik foothills, roads construction and maintenance are easy, but it becomes harder as altitude increases. Further, NH-22 becomes narrow from the point it enters in lesser and central Himalayas. Tough terrain and snowfall damage the roads frequently. On the route to Reckong-Peo, Jeori to Wangtu, a 12.41 km road was partially damaged.

Fig. 6.

Condition of major travel routes in Kinnaur

Further, the road was fully damaged with a longer patch of 17.99 km. length between Wangtu to Karcham, the single longest poorly maintained patch in Kinnaur. The road was also not good from Karcham to Reckong-Peo; it had just 9.56 km. in good condition out of the total length of 23 km. The condition of a 20 km road between Sangla to Chitkul was also not good, and it was partially damaged. These parts were damaged either by landslide activities or due to blasting for the construction of hydropower tunnels. Landslides are the main natural hazard faced by Kinnaur, and from 1971 to 2009, the number of such events was 123, constituting 13.38 percent of the total landslides events in Himachal Pradesh (Kahlon et al., 2014). The Kalka–Shimla–Kinnaur highway is one of the most vulnerable stretches. Kinnaur has the highest landslide events after Shimla and Solan, with several landslide casualties (Bilham, 2004; Chandel, 2015; Chandra, 1992). The Parwanoo–Solan–Shimla section of NH-22 falls under ‘Zone-A’, which is tectonically active, characterized by steep slopes, high relief, and very immature topography (Sharma & Kumar, 2008). The structure of rocks in Kinnaur is the Granitoids group (Granite rocks) which is highly jointed. The rocks have been disintegrated into small or large blocks by the freeze and thaw process of weathering. The Hindustan-Tibet road between Rampur to Khab (Zone-C) traverses through sparsely vegetated steep slopes consisting of highly jointed and weathered rocks belonging to the Wangtu Gneissic Complex, the Vaikrita Group, and the Haimanta Group (Gupta & Shah, 2008; Sharma, 1977; Tewari et al., 1978). Besides the range of lithology, this area has glacial, glacio-fluvial, fluvial, and paleo-slide material of Quaternary origin (Kahlon et al., 2014) and several faults such as Karcham and Vaikrita thrusts. Landslide activity in this area results from the weak structure and steep slopes. A Granitoids tectonically occurring as a window have been identified near the Jeori to Wangtu plausible cause of the landslide. Furthermore, hydropower projects are also found as another major cause of NH-22 destruction. NH-22 is buildup along the Satluj River, and there are 9 big hydel projects of more than 7500 MW running in the basin of this river from Khab to Bhakra. The river passes from tunnels for power generation, which caused major two-way impacts on the basin: change in the shape of the river and loosening of the rock strata. There are 13 small and big hydropower plants working in the Kinnaur, and most of them are along the NH-22 on the Sutlej River (Fig. 7). Considering the size of the area, it is a quite big number of power plants, and it has been observed during the field visit that the construction process of hydropower projects and tunnels greatly harms the roads. The road from Jeori to Powari, in particular, faces serious issues regarding road conditions created by construction activities. There are two major power projects of Himachal Pradesh working over this damaged patch; Nathpa-Jhakri HEP (1500 MW) and Karcham-Wangtu HEP (1000 MW). A huge landslide near Urni (Fig. 8) village was the result of the Karcham-Wangtu project. The rocks near this place were found sliding intermittently for more than 2 years. This landslide has blocked the straight path of 3 km to cross the Karcham-Wangtu project area but was diverted via Urni hill and lengthened to near about 14 km. According to Gupta and Shah (2008), the increased frequency of landslides is attributed to a shift in climatic pattern and escalating anthropogenic activity, as evident from the growing population, increased road length, and alteration in land use. The road condition between Karcham–Sangla–Chitkul was quite better than Jeori–Karcham. Out of the total stretch of 43 km., about 4.60 km. length of the road was fully damaged, while 21.71 km. was found partially damaged. Chitkul is the last village toward Tibet, and it is the main attraction for tourists. The road is also used by ITBP (India-Tibet Border Police) to reach the Hindustan-Tibet border, but tourists are restricted to Chitkul village. The weathering process has disjointed rocks since the area receives heavy snowfall during the winter season. Large boulders of rocks can be seen on both sides of the road. Highly fractured landscapes offer good tourism products, especially to earth scientists. On the route to Kalpa–ReckongPeo–Powari, the condition of the road was very good due to the construction of a new highway named 505-A, which is a junction with NH-5 at Powari. On the way to Nako–Sumdo, a stretch between Jhakri and Spillow was announced on a 24/7 landslide alert. Furthermore, the damaged patch of around 6.47 km. Nako to Malling was also on landslide alert for more than a year. Landslide in the Malling area (Zone-D) results from highly jointed, fractured, and weathered schist and high water discharge due to snowmelt during summer and alteration of slopes for transport networks (Kahlon et al., 2014).

Fig. 7.

Hydropower projects in Kinnaur.

Source: Field survey, 2016

Fig. 8.

Landslides on NH-22 (Urni-left side, Malling- right side).

Source: Field survey, 2016

Transport services

The major component of tourist activity must necessarily be an element of transportation. There is a requirement of quick, comfortable, safe and fairly cheap transport facilities at the suitability of tourists. In the hilly areas, buses are the preferred budget mode of transportation to and within destinations. It is considered a lifeline in Kinnaur, where other transportations means are negligible. According to the Registration and Licensing Authorities of Himachal Pradesh, 1136 vehicles were registered in 2018–19.

Figure 9 demonstrates the major route of bus services from Reckong-Peo, the district headquarters, to tourist destinations. The highest bus services operate between Reckong-Peo to Kalpa, a major tourist destination in Kinnaur. It is also the former headquarter of the district that attracts many tourists every year. On the route of Sangla–Chitkul, the ‘last village toward Tibet’, the service is not good, and only 2 buses run directly to Chitkul. Likewise, there are just 2 buses that ply between Nako and district headquarters, Reckong-Peo; one of those goes beyond Nako up to Kaza. To enter the Nako, foreign tourists need an Inner-Line Permit (ILP) from the police check post located at village Poo. Tourists can apply it online and use offline options (SDM office, Reckong-Peo) for the permits. The bus services to Shimla and Chandigarh provide good connectivity, and their number is higher on these routes. However, beyond Shimla toward Reckong-Peo, bus frequency declined significantly. Only 1 bus runs between Reckong-Peo and Delhi, the national capital. One bus connects it with Haridwar, the religious place of Hindus. Although a sharp increase can be observed in the number of personal and hired vehicles, still there is a need for more public transport modes, especially buses because the destination has very rough topography and at such terrain, everyone could not drive safely. Therefore, a lot of accidents have been noticed. Even HRTC also encountered major accidents sometimes. Therefore, improvement of road condition is necessary with proper signboards and deployment of JCB machines, etc., as a precautionary step in landslide zones to escape the mishaps and make road plying worthy 24 × 7. Strengthening public transport also becomes necessary since many prospective visitors may not afford to travel by personnel vehicle or taxi.

Fig. 9.

Major routes of bus services from and to Kinnaur.

Source: Based on data given by HPRTC, 2016

Mode of travel chosen by tourists

Figure 10 shows that many domestic tourists have used their personnel car/taxi to reach Kinnaur (54.59 percent). The destination offers an ultimate experience of driving, and many national tourists reach in groups here to enjoy the drive-in Himalayan landscape. Besides, mostly foreigners preferred public transport, i.e., buses. Many foreign visitors are from Israel, and they aim to spend minimum currency on travel; hence, they prefer public transport. Tourists from Australia, Russia, and Germany preferred bikes (26.03 percent). They came in groups and enjoyed biking through one of the ‘deadliest roads of the world’. There are a lot of opportunities for adventure tourism in Kinnaur, and the response of foreign tourists is more positive than domestic tourists.

Fig. 10.

Mode of transport used by tourists to visit Kinnaur.

Source: Field survey, 2016

Fuel station

The modern world runs on wheels; therefore, to develop the tourism industry, there is a need for the good availability of fuel stations. At such tourist destinations, the importance is more significant where sites are so remote. Bikers carry extra fuel in cans or other containers in the study area because filling stations are few and far. In 2018–19, 6 outlets were available; 4 were run by Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) and 2 by Hindustan Petroleum Corporation (https://himachalservices.nic.in/economics/pdf/StatisticalAbstract_2018_19.pdf). Most tourists fill the fuel tank of their vehicles at Tapri fuel station because the next filling station is 227 Kilometers away at Kaza on this route. Besides, the district headquarter, Reckong-Peo, has many options. Hence, there is a need to increase the number of fuel outlets. This is one area where urgent improvement is needed for the sustainable growth of tourism. Poo, Nako, and Sangla would be appropriate locations for additional development of filling stations.

Descriptive analysis

Skewness and kurtosis values of items were examined to assess the normality of data distribution. According to the criteria of Chou and Bentler (1995), the items with skewness and kurtosis greater than 3.0 point would be considered extreme. The skewness and the kurtosis statistics are 0.699 and − 1.265, respectively, which shows that there are no items that fell outside the ranges, implying that all the study items are reasonably free from skewness and kurtosis (Table 7).

Table 7.

Descriptive statistics for transport facilities items

Kinnaur	Skewness		Kurtosis
Number of items	Statistic	Std. error	Statistic	Std. error
7	0.699	0.794	− 1.265	1.587

Responses were based on a five-point Likert scale

Tourist’s perception of transport facilities

Many renowned tourist destinations face pollution problems worldwide, and it is challenging to manage them. Moreover, people who live in metro cities explore such destinations which are free from pollution. Further, in the context of the study area, which is free from those kinds of problems (pollution and huge crowd) and offers a serene environment is also reflected in tourists’ agreement which has been positively favorable in concerns to ‘air pollution’ (Mean = 4.19) and ‘noise pollution’ (Mean = 4.05). Considering the observation of tourists, the mean values of items such as ‘road network and linkages’ (Mean = 2.44), ‘auto-mechanic facility’ (Mean = 2.58), ‘filling station’ (Mean = 2.73), and availability of public parking spaces (Mean = 2.99) indicate their poor status (Table 8, Fig. 11). Also, tourists were satisfied with the work of BRO (Border Road Organization), acknowledging their good efforts in the tough terrain located in the high Himalayas. Also, tourists suggested that there should be more road signs at destinations, especially in English. Techniques should be improved, and high-tech machines should be used to clear the blockage of roads during snowfall or landslides as traveling through these roads takes a lot of time and usually creates jams.

Table 8.

Tourist’s perception about transport facilities

Items	Chitkul		Kalpa		Nako		Kinnaur
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Air pollution	4.06	1.25	4.53	0.78	3.98	1.01	4.19	1.01
Noise pollution	4.00	1.23	4.19	0.91	3.97	0.91	4.05	1.02
Road network and linkages	2.20	0.89	2.39	1.15	2.72	1.21	2.44	1.08
Filling station	2.14	1.02	3.34	0.91	2.72	1.19	2.73	1.04
Auto-mechanic facility	2.21	0.91	3.25	1.01	2.28	0.95	2.58	0.96
Availability of public parking spaces	2.94	1.19	2.96	1.15	3.07	1.11	2.99	1.15
Availability of transportation modes	3.11	1.07	3.35	1.23	3.26	1.30	3.24	1.20

Responses were based on a five-point Likert scale, 2016

Fig. 11.

Difference in tourist’s perception by destinations.

Source: Responses were based on a five-point Likert scale, 2016

Correlation between tourist’s perception by destination

Pearson correlation has been calculated to find out any relation between the destinations. The absolute value of correlation describes the magnitude of the correlation; the greater the value, the stronger the correlation. The correlation coefficients of the selected destinations are found to be very strong. The correlation between the destinations of Kalpa and Nako is 0.787 due to their diverse landscape (Table 9). Kalpa is placed among apple orchards and pine greenery at the base of the Kinner Kailash Mountain. The road setup is pretty good compared with other destinations. Whereas, Nako is situated in the cold desert near the Indo-China border in the Trans-Himalayan region. The road mostly remains broken or damaged due to the mountain’s poor structure. It is very difficult to construct a good road network on such terrain; however, the maintenance of the road is lookout by the Border Road Organization (BRO) timely.

Table 9.

Correlation in tourist’s perception by destinations

Destinations	Chitkul	Kalpa	Nako
Chitkul	1	0.833*	0.969**
Kalpa	0.833*	1	0.787*
Nako	0.969**	0.787*	1

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

The difference in tourist’s perception by destination

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) at a significance level of 0.05 has been used to determine the statistically significant differences between selected destinations such as Chitkul, Kalpa, and Nako. The selected destinations are located nearby river banks, i.e., Nako (Spiti River), Kalpa (Sutlej River), and Chitkul (Baspa River), and have almost similar terrain. The significant value (P value = 0.487) is above the significance level of 0.05, implying that no significant difference has been found in tourist perceptions among the items of transport facilities (Table 10).

Table 10.

Differences in tourist’s perception toward transport facilities (ANOVA)

Items	Sum of squares	Df	Mean square	F-Value	Significance
Between groups	0.812	2	0.406	0.748	0.487
Within groups	9.770	18	0.543
Total	10.582	20

Responses were based on a five-point Likert scale

*Significant at the level of 0.05 level

Tukey test, also called Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference Test, was applied to the tourist’s perception of transport facilities. Tukey test is the preferred test for conducting post hoc tests on a one-way ANOVA. This test compares all the possible pairs of means. From the results of ANOVA, no significant difference has been found in tourist perceptions among the items of transport facilities. Table 11 shows the differences, if any, among different groups. No statistically significant difference has been found between the destinations. However, the results suggest that the tourists who visited Kalpa (P value = 0.460) perceived significantly higher agreements in selected destinations. The possible reason may be that Kalpa is the major destination and former district headquarters and has many facilities to fulfill the needs of travelers. It is the center of all tourism activities that extend services to the whole of Kinnaur.

Table 11.

Differences in tourist’s perception by destinations (Tukey HSD)

Destination (I)	Destination (J)	Mean difference (I-J)	Standard error	Significance	95% confidence interval
					Lower bound	Upper bound
Chitkul	Kalpa	− 0.47857	0.39379	0.460	− 1.4836	0.5265
	Nako	− 0.19143	0.39379	0.879*	− 1.1965	0.8136
Kalpa	Chitkul	0.47857	0.39379	0.460	− 0.5265	1.4836
	Nako	0.28714	0.39379	0.750*	− 0.7179	1.2922
Nako	Chitkul	0.19143	0.39379	0.879*	− 0.8136	1.1965
	Kalpa	− 0.28714	0.39379	0.750*	− 1.2922	0.7179

Responses were based on a five-point Likert scale

*Mean difference is significant at the level of 0.05 level

Conclusion

Research acknowledges the need for robust transport infrastructure in a successful strategy for developing tourism. The role of transport in tourism development has been analyzed by explaining both exogenous and endogenous parameters of the system. Transport has much strategic importance due to its specific location, i.e., cold desert and the international border with Tibet. The government of Himachal Pradesh needs to make all-weather roads with appropriate maintenance. The roads are narrow at certain locations and need to widen, preferably two or more lanes. However, the physiography of the high altitude and fractured rocks due to weathering and human-induced factors creates many problems that make the connectivity paralyzed during the rainy and winter season. On the positive side, the Government of Himachal Pradesh has pushed for green transportation to conserve the serene environment of the cold desert destinations. More recently, an attempt has been made to shift public transportation from hydrocarbon fuel to electric buses or taxies on experimental bases. Himachal Roads Transport Corporation (HRTC) recently launched an electric bus service on the Mandi Kullu–Manali and Rohtang Pass routes, and the results are quite positive. It was the first hill state in the country that run electric buses in the country (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shimla/himachal-pradesh-first-hill-state-in-country-to-run-electric-buses/articleshow/60787007.cms). The encouraging results may push for electric vehicles in a couple of years in both public, and private sector provided re-charging infrastructure is strengthened to an appropriate level. Transport connectivity has affected various systems of the cold desert, not only tourism but also health, education, commerce, and trade. Besides, the total number of international tourist arrivals declined almost 83 percent in 2020 compared with the previous year (UNWTO, 2021). Coronavirus effects have shattered the tourism economy of the study area. During the pandemic, the hotel association of Kinnaur announced to close its doors to tourists, while the majority of the population engaged in the tourism industry for their livelihood. Because of the fears of the third wave, tourists are not expected to venture out for the hills anytime soon. However, taking advantage of the absence of tourist vehicles, the road infrastructure has been strengthened but needs to do more. It would significantly increase the tourist inflow and economic development at high-altitude destinations of the study area shortly if good road transport infrastructure is put in place.

Recommendations

• There is a need for proper signboards and reflectors on roadsides showing the way forward of roads to major destinations with proper marking and important information about the place at a regular distance.

• The administration could install boulder binding/catching nets along the hill slopes for those sites which frequently face landslides. The major portion of Jeori–Karcham–Wangtoo–Reckong-Peo road has been found fully damaged, which could be bound by slope infilling and earth embankment along the hill slopes.

• Boulder gathering trenches are used as the static method to reduce the impact of rock falls. The patches between Sangla-Chitkul and near Powari and Malling are affected by rockfalls; accordingly, boulder gathering trenches are efficient in absorbing the kinetic energy of falling rocks, which could be applied to those areas.

• To maintain the road in a highly jointed, fractured, and weathered schist, with high water discharge due to snowmelt during summer (landslide in the Malling area), NHAI can install the prefabricated channels by converting the water flow from cracks to the surface flow. Prefabricated channels not only slow down the process of crack expansion, but it is also helpful to fulfill the need for fresh water for travelers and residents.

• The hydropower projects are also one of the major causes of NH-22 destruction due to blasting during the tunneling process and instilling the rocks leading to rockslides or landslides. The authorities ignored the maintenance of roads destructed by rockfalls caused by the tunneling process. Therefore, NHAI should penalize the builders involved in tunneling for their lack of maintenance around the tunnels.

• To maintain the road for the future, the authorities can use reinforcement measures to overcome the block disintegration in this area. They should use controlled demolition during the tunneling process. The reinforcement measures include joining loose rocks with metal rock nails and anchors. This method can easily control further rock disintegration in the affected area. The concrete insertion also includes reinforcement measures for giving support to the rocks.

• The destination has a highly inadequate frequency of public transport vehicles from Shimla, Chandigarh, and Delhi. Due to rough topography, everyone could not drive safely on such terrain; therefore, more public transport vehicles like mini busses are needed. Moreover, there is a need to promote eco-friendly means of transportation and accessibility to all the tourist destinations, such as electric vehicles; electric charging points can be easily developed in the area by using abundantly available solar and hydro energy.

• There is a lot of demand for bikes and bicycles for rent, encouraging local youths to start providing this facility at prominent destinations; the government should act as a facilitator by arranging low-interest rate loans.

• Tourists traveling through private vehicles felt concerned about the absence of an adequate number of fuel stations and mechanics. Additional fuel stations should be developed at Powari and Nako to fulfill travelers’ needs.