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Pathway model of vascular hyperplasia induced by low-dose PDT. As shown in the figure, the treatment of human umbilical vein endothelial cells co-cultured with MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells (termed HU-231 cells) with low-dose PDT led to endothelial cell proliferation in the co-culture system, which may be related to the ALK1-Smad1/5-ID1 signalling pathway, but not to the PI3K/AKT pathway. PDT, photodynamic therapy; ALK1, activin receptor-like kinase-1.
