Table 2. Association of socio-economic factors with unmet need for modern contraceptives in 30 low- and middle-income countries.
| Socio-economic factors | Odds ratio (95% CI) |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| South Asia (N = 55,953) |
Southeast Asia (N = 4,937) |
West and Central Africa (N = 23,491) |
East and Southern Africa (N = 16,285) |
|||||
| Model I | Model II | Model I | Model II | Model I | Model II | Model I | Model II | |
| Educational level | ||||||||
| No education | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) |
| Primary | 1.00 (0.92–1.08) |
1.01 (0.94–1.09) |
1.07 (0.81–1.42) |
1.10 (0.83–1.47) |
1.30*** (1.19–1.41) |
1.26*** (1.16–1.38) |
1.03 (0.91–1.17) |
1.10 (0.96–1.26) |
| Secondary and higher | 1.20*** (1.13–1.28) |
1.37*** (1.26–1.49) |
1.12 (0.85–1.47) |
1.17 (0.85–1.61) |
1.44*** (1.32–1.57) |
1.50*** (1.36–1.65) |
0.93 (0.79–1.08) |
1.06 (0.89–1.26) |
| Type of earning from work | ||||||||
| Not working | 1.14** (1.06–1.24) |
1.23*** (1.13–1.33) |
0.92 (0.78–1.08) |
0.86 (0.74–1.02) |
0.98 (0.91–1.05) |
1.06 (0.98–1.14) |
1.11* (1.01–1.22) |
1.13* (1.02–1.24) |
| Not paid | 1.00 (0.88–1.14) |
1.02 (0.9–1.16) |
0.99 (0.76–1.3) |
1.00 (0.76–1.32) |
1.04 (0.95–1.15) |
1.08 (0.98–1.19) |
0.94 (0.84–1.05) |
0.93 (0.83–1.04) |
| Paid1 | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) |
| Exposure to media | ||||||||
| No | 1.12*** (1.07–1.18) |
1.12*** (1.06–1.18) |
0.98 (0.85–1.14) |
0.99 (0.85–1.15) |
1.02 (0.94–1.1) |
1.05 (0.97–1.14) |
1.10* (1.01–1.20) |
1.11* (1.01–1.21) |
| Yes | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) |
| Household decision-making autonomy | ||||||||
| Low | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) |
| Medium | 0.94* (0.89–0.99) |
0.97 (0.92–1.02) |
0.81* (0.69–0.95) |
0.79** (0.67–0.94) | 1.10* (1.01–1.20) |
1.08 (0.99–1.17) |
0.86** (0.79–0.94) | 0.86*** (0.79–0.93) |
| High | 1.21** (1.07–1.36) | 1.30*** (1.15–1.46) | 1.17 (0.86–1.60) |
1.16 (0.84–1.58) |
1.40** (1.14–1.72) | 1.35** (1.09–1.66) | 1.97*** (1.59–2.44) | 1.94*** (1.56–2.4) |
| Household wealth index | ||||||||
| Poorest | 1.18*** (1.08–1.28) | 1.15** (1.05–1.26) | 0.63*** (0.50–0.81) | 0.62** (0.48–0.82) | 0.87* (0.77–0.98) |
0.96 (0.83–1.11) |
1.43*** (1.23–1.67) | 1.24* (1.04–1.48) |
| Poorer | 1.15*** (1.07–1.24) | 1.13** (1.04–1.22) | 0.63*** (0.50–0.80) | 0.63*** (0.48–0.81) | 0.87* (0.77–0.98) |
0.96 (0.84–1.11) |
1.22** (1.05–1.42) | 1.06 (0.89–1.25) |
| Middle | 1.12** (1.04–1.21) | 1.09* (1.01–1.18) |
0.70** (0.55–0.88) |
0.70** (0.55–0.91) | 0.94 (0.84–1.06) |
1.02 (0.90–1.17) |
1.21* (1.04–1.41) |
1.06 (0.90–1.26) |
| Richer | 1.11** (1.03–1.2) | 1.09* (1.01–1.17) |
0.72** (0.57–0.91) | 0.73* (0.58–0.93) |
1.02 (0.91–1.15) |
1.08 (0.96–1.22) |
1.18* (1.01–1.36) |
1.08 (0.92–1.26) |
| Richest | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) | 1.00 (Ref.) |
| Random effects parameter | Variance (SE) | |||||||
| Community level | 0.18 (0.12) | 0.16 (0.11) | 0.09 (0.07) | 0.07 (0.05) | 0.11 (0.04) | 0.09 (0.04) | 0.14 (0.07) | 0.14 (0.07) |
| Country level | 0.47 (0.03) | 0.49 (0.03) | 0.23 (0.09) | 0.22 (0.09) | 0.26 (0.03) | 0.26 (0.03) | 0.26 (0.05) | 0.25 (0.04) |
| Intraclass correlation | ICC (SE) | |||||||
| Community level | 0.17 (0.03) | 0.17 (0.02) | 0.09 (0.03) | 0.08 (0.03) | 0.1 (0.01) | 0.1 (0.01) | 0.11 (0.02) | 0.11 (0.02) |
| Country level | 0.05 (0.03) | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.03 (0.02) | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.03 (0.01) | 0.03 (0.01) | 0.04 (0.02) | 0.04 (0.02) |
| Likelihood-ratio test | ||||||||
| Chi-square value | 885.2 | 811.2 | 48.1 | 34.3 | 566.5 | 480.6 | 255.8 | 235.8 |
| P value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
N, number of total observations; CI, confidence interval; Ref., reference category; SE, standard error
1either cash, or in-kind, or both.
Model I included exposure variables only (educational level, type of earning, exposure to media, decision making autonomy, and household wealth index).
Model II was additionally adjusted with spousal age difference, partner more educated than wife, number of living children, married before 18 years old, and place of residence.
Significance level:
*p<0.05;
**p<0.01;
***p<0.001.