Table 3:
Multivariate analyses of risk factors associated with WHODAS 2.0 scores in individuals who screened positive for depression or substance use (n=753)
| Univariate analysis | Multivariate analysis | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | Total patients | Mean WHODAS score | Difference (95% CI) | p | Difference (95% CI) | p |
| Total | 753 | 20.8 | ||||
| Age at survey (years) | 0.766 | - | - | |||
| ≤30 | 188 | 21.2 | Ref | - | - | |
| 31–40 | 239 | 20.9 | −0.3 (−2.0, 1.4) | 0.737 | - | - |
| 41–50 | 216 | 19.5 | −1.7 (−3.5, 0.0) | 0.057 | - | - |
| >50 | 110 | 22.1 | 0.8 (−1.3, 2.9) | 0.448 | - | - |
| Sex | - | - | ||||
| Male | 678 | 20.9 | Ref | - | - | |
| Female | 75 | 19.7 | −1.3 (−3.4, 0.9) | 0.255 | - | - |
| HIV mode of exposure | 0.002 | - | - | |||
| Heterosexual contact | 233 | 21.8 | Ref | - | - | |
| MSM | 406 | 19.7 | −2.1 (−3.6, −0.7) | 0.004 | - | - |
| Injecting drug use | 13 | 21.4 | −0.4 (−5.4, 4.6) | 0.870 | - | - |
| Other/Unknown | 101 | 22.9 | 1.0 (−1.0, 3.1) | 0.325 | - | - |
| Viral Load at survey (copies/mL) | - | - | ||||
| <1000 | 490 | 19.7 | Ref | - | - | |
| ≥1000 | 43 | 22.5 | 2.8 (0.0, 5.6) | 0.046 | - | - |
| Not tested | 220 | 22.9 | - | - | ||
| CD4 at survey (cells/μL) | <0.001 | 0.001 | ||||
| ≤200 | 63 | 25.1 | Ref | Ref | ||
| 201–350 | 86 | 22.2 | −2.9 (−5.8, −0.1) | 0.045 | −1.4 (−4.0, 1.2) | 0.284 |
| 351–500 | 103 | 19.9 | −5.2 (−7.9, −2.4) | <0.001 | −2.2 (−4.7, 0.4) | 0.094 |
| >500 | 276 | 18.5 | −6.6 (−9.0, −4.2) | <0.001 | −3.0 (−5.3, −0.7) | 0.010 |
| Not tested | 225 | 22.3 | ||||
| Current ART | <0.001 | 0.003 | ||||
| NRTI+NNRTI | 387 | 21.5 | Ref | Ref | ||
| NRTI+PI | 51 | 22.0 | 0.5 (−2.1, 3.0) | 0.729 | −0.5 (−2.9, 1.8) | 0.668 |
| INSTI | 270 | 18.7 | −2.8 (−4.2, −1.4) | <0.001 | −2.4 (−4.2, −0.5) | 0.013 |
| Other | 24 | 22.2 | 0.6 (−3.0, 4.3) | 0.730 | 1.2 (−2.2, 4.6) | 0.487 |
| None | 21 | 28.8 | 7.3 (3.4, 11.2) | <0.001 | 4.6 (1.0, 8.2) | 0.013 |
| Hepatitis B co-infection | 0.609 | - | - | |||
| Negative | 250 | 17.9 | Ref | - | - | |
| Positive | 27 | 17.0 | −0.9 (−4.4, 2.6) | - | - | |
| Not tested | 476 | 22.5 | - | - | ||
| Hepatitis C co-infection | 0.318 | - | - | |||
| Negative | 343 | 17.8 | Ref | - | - | |
| Positive | 26 | 16.1 | −1.7 (−5.1, 1.7) | - | - | |
| Not tested | 384 | 23.8 | - | - | ||
| Prior AIDS Diagnosis | 0.023 | - | - | |||
| No | 476 | 19.3 | Ref | - | - | |
| Yes | 176 | 21.0 | 1.7 (0.2, 3.2) | - | - | |
| Not reported | 101 | 27.5 | - | - | ||
| House hold income (USD) per month | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
| ≤$500 | 184 | 24.0 | Ref | Ref | ||
| $501–$2000 | 215 | 19.7 | −4.3 (−6.0, −2.6) | <0.001 | −2.2 (−3.8, −0.5) | 0.010 |
| >$2000 | 233 | 17.8 | −6.2 (−7.8, −4.5) | <0.001 | −4.0 (−5.9, −2.2) | <0.001 |
| Not reported/unknown | 121 | 23.5 | ||||
| Employment | <0.001 | - | - | |||
| No | 159 | 24.0 | 4.9 (3.3, 6.5) | - | - | |
| Full time | 426 | 19.1 | Ref | - | - | |
| Part time | 113 | 22.3 | 3.2 (1.4, 5.1) | - | - | |
| Not reported/unknown | 55 | 21.3 | - | - | ||
| Highest education level | 0.172 | - | - | |||
| No education | 3 | 15.3 | −5.1 (−15.3, 5.2) | 0.332 | - | - |
| Primary to high school | 235 | 21.5 | 1.1 (−0.3, 2.5) | 0.118 | - | - |
| College to university | 497 | 20.4 | Ref | - | - | |
| Not reported/unknown | 18 | 22.6 | - | - | ||
| HIV disclosure status | 0.062 | - | - | |||
| Fully | 37 | 24.1 | Ref | - | - | |
| Partially | 538 | 20.5 | −3.6 (−6.6, −0.6) | 0.018 | - | - |
| Not disclosed | 140 | 20.7 | −3.4 (−6.7, −0.2) | 0.040 | - | - |
| Not reported/unknown | 38 | 21.9 | - | - | ||
| Previous stressors | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
| No | 301 | 17.9 | Ref | Ref | ||
| Yes | 399 | 22.4 | 4.5 (3.2, 5.8) | 2.7 (1.4, 3.9) | ||
| Not reported/unknown | 53 | 25.0 | ||||
| Family history of mental health disorder | 0.012 | <0.001 | ||||
| No | 637 | 20.2 | Ref | Ref | ||
| Yes | 32 | 24.3 | 4.1 (0.9, 7.2) | 5.0 (2.9 – 7.1) | ||
| Not reported/unknown | 84 | 24.1 | - | - | ||
| Comorbidities | 0.159 | - | - | |||
| No | 302 | 19.7 | Ref | - | - | |
| Yes | 130 | 21.1 | 1.3 (−0.5, 3.2) | - | - | |
| Not reported/unknown | 321 | 21.6 | - | - | ||
| Previous mental health disorder | <0.001 | - | - | |||
| No | 539 | 18.6 | Ref | - | - | |
| Yes | 61 | 24.2 | 5.6 (3.4, 7.8) | - | - | |
| Not reported/unknown | 153 | 27.1 | - | - | ||
| History of STIs in the past 5 years | 0.769 | - | - | |||
| No | 339 | 19.3 | Ref | - | - | |
| Yes | 237 | 19.1 | −0.2 (−1.6, 1.2) | - | - | |
| Not reported/unknown | 177 | 25.9 | - | - | ||
| Year of ART initiation | 0.213 | - | - | |||
| <2010 | 199 | 20.2 | Ref | - | - | |
| 2010–2012 | 98 | 19.5 | −0.7 (−2.9, 1.4) | 0.508 | - | - |
| 2013–2015 | 160 | 20.9 | 0.7 (−1.2, 2.6) | 0.472 | - | - |
| 2016–2020 | 286 | 21.4 | 1.2 (−0.4, 2.9) | 0.136 | - | - |
| No ART | 10 | 24.1 | 3.9 (−1.8, 9.6) | 0.183 | - | - |
| ART adverse events in the previous year | 0.494 | - | - | |||
| No | 510 | 18.9 | Ref | - | - | |
| Yes | 80 | 19.6 | 0.7 (−1.3, 2.7) | - | - | |
| Not reported/unknown | 163 | 27.2 | ||||
| ART adherence in the previous year | 0.460 | - | - | |||
| ≥95 | 479 | 19.0 | Ref | - | - | |
| <95 | 52 | 20.0 | 0.9 (−1.5, 3.4) | - | - | |
| Not reported/unknown | 222 | 24.7 | - | - | ||
| World Bank country income grouping | 0.009 | <0.001 | ||||
| High | 292 | 19.7 | Ref | Ref | ||
| Upper-middle and lower-middle | 461 | 21.5 | 1.8 (0.4, 3.1) | −3.6 (−5.5, −1.7) | ||
Abbreviations: Ref-reference group; CI-confidence interval; MSM-men who have sex with men; ART-antiretroviral therapy; NRTI-non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors; NNRTI-non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors; PI-protease inhibitors; INSTI-integrase strand transfer inhibitors; STIs-sexually transmitted infections; WHODAS-World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule.