Table 1.
Mechanisms of action demonstrated by probiotics (except Streptomyces) in aquaculture
| Mechanism of action | Probiotic strain | Host | Results | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stimulation in immune responses/parameters | Lactobacillus acidophilus | Koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) fingerlings | Improved IR and development | [38] |
| Bacillus subtilis and trans-cinnamic acid | Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) | Improved IR and DR against Yersinia ruckeri | [39] | |
| Bacillus velezensis V4 | Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) juvenile | Modulated IP | [40] | |
| Disease resistance | Bacillus licheniformis | Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) | Increased resistance against artificially induced pathogenic fish infection | [41] |
| Bacillus subtilis HAINUP40 | Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) | Enhanced GP, IR, and DR | [42] | |
| Enterococcus casseliflavus | Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) | Enhanced DR against Streptococcus iniae pathogen | [43] | |
| Competitive prohibition of pathogens |
Aeromonas sobria GC2 Bacillus sp. JB-1 |
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum) | Proved inhibitory against Aeromonas salmonicida, Lactococcus garvieae, S. iniae, Vibrio anguillarum, V. ordalii, and Y. ruckeri | [27] |
| Bacillus subtilis AB1 | Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum) | Prohibited the virulent Aeromonas sp. | [44] | |
| Modification in gut microbiota | Bacillus OJ + IMO | White shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) | Addition in feed altered IM | [45] |
| Arthrobacter XE-7 | Pacific white shrimp (L. vannamei) | Addition in feed modulated IM and increased resistance against V. parahaemolyticus | [46] | |
| Leucosnostoc mensenteroides | Penaeus monodon | Reduced the growth of pathogenic V. angillarum from hepatopancreas, gut, and intestine | [47] | |
| Competition for space/blocking of adhesion sites | Bacillus subtilis | Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) | Efficiently converted OM into nutrients and adhered to the intestine | [48] |
| Lactococcus lactis | ||||
| Saccharomyces cerevisiae | ||||
| Lactococcus lactis CLFP 101 | Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) | Reduced the adhesion of A. salmonicida, A. hydrophila, Y. ruckeri, and V. anguillarum to intestinal mucus | [49] | |
| Lactobacillus plantarum CLFP 238 | ||||
| Lactobacillus fermentum CLFP 242 | ||||
| Stimulation in growth and survival | Pseudomonas sp. RGM2144 | Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) | Increased survival to 92.7 ± 1.2% against Flavobacterium psychrophilum challenge | [43] |
| Enterococcus faecium | Big-belly seahorse (Hippocampus abdominalis) | Enhanced GP and SR against pathogenic Edwardsiella tarda | [42] | |
| Enzymatic activities | Bacillus subtilis and trans-cinnamic acid | Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) | Produced intestinal amylase enzyme and reduced coliform and Enterobacteriaceae count | [50] |
| Kocuria sp. | Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) | Produced EEs to inhibit the growth of V. anguillarum, V. ordalii, E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus | [51] | |
| Rhodococcus sp. | ||||
| Bioremediation | Commercial Bacillus megaterium | Major carps (Cirrihinus nrigala, Labeo rohita and Catla catla) | Showed significant effect on BOD, DO, COD, TDS, ammonia, alkalinity, and pH | [52] |
| Limosilactobacillus fermentum | In vitro experiment | Elevated arsenic-, cadmium-, and lead-resistant patterns and exhibited excellent arsenic removal efficiencies | [53] | |
| B. velezensis AP193 | Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) | Significantly improved WQ by reducing TP (19%), TN (43%) and nitrate (75%) | [54] | |
| Disruption of quorum sensing/ antibiofilm activity | Bacillus sp. QSI-1 | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | Efficiently disrupted QS-mediated virulence factors and attenuated biofilm formation of the fish pathogen A. hydrophila | [55] |
| Pheaobacter inhibens S4Sm | In vitro experiment | Produced N-AHL against oyster pathogen V. coralliilyticus and disrupted QS pathway that activates protease transcription of V. coralliilyticus | [56] | |
| Bacillus sp. YB1701 | Gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) | Significant QQ of the fish pathogen A. hydrophila | [57] | |
| Antiviral/antifungal activity | Bacillus OJ + IMO | White shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) | Reduced mortalities of shrimp challenged with WSSV | [45] |
| Pseudomonas species M162 | Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) | Improved IR against saprolegniasis | [58] | |
| Pseudomonas species M174 | ||||
| Janthinobacterium species M169 |
IR immune response, IP immune parameters, GP growth performance, DR disease resistance, IMO isomaltooligosaccharide, IM intestinal microbiota, OM organic matter, SR survival rate, EEs extracellular enzymes, BOD biological oxygen demand, DO dissolved oxygen, COD chemical oxygen demand, TDS total dissolved solids, WQ water quality, TP total phosphorus, TN total nitrogen, QS quorum sensing, QQ quorum quenching, WSSV white spot syndrome virus, N-AHL N- acyl homoserine lactone