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. 2023 Mar 21;13:4610. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-31347-8

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Modulation of IFN-γ secretion and activation markers on memory T cell subtypes indicated the efficacy of whole virion vaccination on cellular immunity. T_EMRA, T_CM, and T_EM obtained from the placebo group and the CoronaVac group on day 7 and day 120 were co-cultured with the S1-loaded mDCs. IFN-γ secreted into the supernatants and the expression of CD25, CD38, 4-1BB, PD-1, and CD107a markers were assessed by flow cytometry-based methods after 96 h of incubation. (A) The amount of IFN-γ secreted by memory T cells is shown. (B) The percentage of participants whose T cells were responded to the S1-loaded mDCs and secreted more IFN-γ than the median value of the placebo group is demonstrated as “responders”. (C) The IFN-γ secretion capacity of T_EMRA, T_CM, and T_EM obtained on day 7 and day 120 is given on individual basis (n = 31). (D) The change in the expression levels of activation markers for the CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T memory cells on day 7 (n = 56) and day 120 (n = 46) is presented in a heat map and displayed as arbitrary units (A.U) which were calculated in comparison to those obtained from the co-cultures with control mDCs. Data obtained from the experiments without any technical complications are plotted; therefore, the number of volunteers for each group do not match to those of the total number of participants enrolled to the study. (Significance was determined by Mann–Whitney U test for (A), *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01). Each dot represents a single participant.