Table 1.
Summarized study characteristics for crossover trials
| Author (year) |
Country | Intake length (i), washout length (w) |
Participants N (A); sex (f %); age [y] mean (SD) |
Manipulated ED [kcal/g] of total meal (manipulated + if available unmanipulated items) | Consumed ED [kcal/g] of total meal (manipulated + if available unmanipulated items) | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Studies with entrée design (adults) | ||||||
| Bell and Rolls [46] | US | i: 6 × 1 meal | N: 46 (36); f: 100%; | LED: 1.1 | LED: 1.1 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 5 x ≥ 5 days | age: S1: 26.9 (7.9), S2: 25.8 (1.3) | HED: 1.4 | HED: 1.5 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||
| Blatt et al. [47] | US | i: 3 × 1 day | N: 48 (41); f: 51.2%; | LED: 2.0 [+ side dishes; ED N.A.] | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 2 × 7 days | age: m: 24.4 (4.5), f: 23.9 (5.5) | HED: 2.6 [+ side dishes; ED N.A.] | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Cheskin et al. [49] | US | i: 2 × 4 meals | N: 76 (54); f: 66.7%; age: 35.5 (N.R.) | LED: 2.0 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 1 × 3 days | HED: 4.6 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||||
| Devitt and Mattes [50] | US | i: 4 days | N: 26 (20); f: 45.0%; age: 22.6 (5.8) | LED: 1.5 | LED: 1.5 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: N.R. | HED: 2.6 | HED: 2.6 | FI [LED]: ↔ /↑ | |||
| *Hogenkamp et al. [52] | NL | i: 4 × 5 meals | N: 118 (105); f: 56.2%; age: 22.0 (3.0) | LED: 0.5 | LED: 0.5 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 3 × 2 days | HED: 1.4 | HED: 1.4 | FI [LED]: ↑ | |||
| Hogenkamp et al. [53] | NL | i: 4 × 4 days | N: 38 (27); f: 66.7%; age: 21.0 (2.4) | LED: 0.3 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 3 × 3 days | HED: 1.3 | FI [LED]: ↑ | ||||
| Karl et al. [54] | US | i: 4 × 1 meal | N: 20 (20); f: 40.0%; age: 30.0 (11.0) | LED: 1.2 | LED: 1.2 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: yes. but N.R. | HED: 1.6 | HED: 1.6 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Kral et al. [55] | US | i: 3 × 1 day | N: 40 (40); f: 100%; | LED: 1.3 [+ side dishes; ED N.A.] | LED: 1.1 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 2 × 6 days | age: S1: 20.5 (3.1), S2: 21.8 (2.7) | HED: 1.8 [+ side dishes; ED N.A.] | HED: 1.4 | FI [LED]: ↑ | ||
| Kral et al. [56] | US | i: 6 × 1 day | N: 45 (39); f: 100%; age: 23.4 (1.0) | LED: 1.3 | LED: 1.1 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 5 × 7 days | HED: 1.8 | HED: 1.6 | FI [LED]: ↑ | |||
| McCrickerd et al. [57] | SGP | i: 4 × 1 meal | N: 61 (58); f: 53.5%; | LED: 0.6 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 3 x ≥ 3 days | age: m: 25.6 (5.3), f: 23.5 (3.5) | HED: 1.0 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Poppitt and Swann [58] | UK | i: 2 × 12 days | N: 6 (5); f: 0%; age: 35.0 (8.9) | LED: 0.9 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 1 × 3 days | HED: 2.0 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||||
| Rolls et al. [61] | US | i: 4 × 2 days | N: 25 (24); f: 100%; age: 21.9 (3.4) | LED: 1.6 | LED: 1.6 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 3 × 7 days | HED: 2.1 | HED: 2.1 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Rolls et al. [62] | US | E1: i: 6 × 1 meal (w: 5 × 7 days) | N: 100 (97); f: 49.5%; | LED: 1.2 | LED: 1.2 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| age E1:m: 26.8 (6.0), f: 26.7 (7.8); | ||||||
| E2: i: 6 × 1 meal (w: 5 × 7 days) | age E2:m: 24.8 (6.4), f: 28.5 (7.4) | HED: 1.3 | HED: 1.3 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||
| Silver et al. [63] | US | i: 6 meals/wk over 7 months | N: 52 (45); f: 68.9%; age: 84.4 (1.0) | LED: 1.1 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: N.R. | HED: 2.2 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||||
| Stubbs, Harbron et al. [65] | UK | i: 3 × 9 days | N: 6 (6); f: 0%; age: 41.8 (10.6) | LED: 1.2 | LED: 1.0 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: NR | HED: 1.7 | HED: 1.5 | FI [LED]: ↑ | |||
| Stubbs, Ritz et al. [67] | UK | i: 3 × 16 days | N: 7 (7); f: 0%; age: 36.9 (7.6) | LED: 1.2 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: N.R. | HED: 1.7 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||||
| Stubbs, Johnstone, Harbron et al. [64] | UK | i: 2 × 16 days | N: 6 (6); f: 0%; age: 32.2 (5.3) | LED: 0.9 | LED: 0.8 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 1 x ≥ 7 days | HED: 1.5 | HED: 1.6 | FI [LED]: ↑ | |||
| Stubbs, Johnstone, O’Reilly et al. [66] | UK | i: 3 × 16 days | N: 6 (6); f: 0%; age: 30.0 (12.8) | LED: 0.9 | LED: 0.9 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 2 x ≥ 7 days | HED: 1.8 | HED: 1.7 | FI [LED]: ↑ | |||
| Williams et al. [69] | US | i: 4 × 1 day | N: 62 (59); f: 49.2%; | LED: 1.4 [+ side dishes; ED N.A.] | LED: 1.5 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 3 × 7 days | age: m: 26.1 (5.4), f: 25.6 (5.9) | HED: 1.8 [+ side dishes; ED N.A.] | HED: 1.7 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||
| Williams et al. [68] | US | i: 6 × 1 meal | N: 53 (46); f: 100%; age: 25.4 (5.4) | LED: 1.3 | LED: 1.3 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 5 × 7 days | HED: 1.7 | HED: 1.7 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Yeomans et al. [70] | UK | E1: i: 4 × 1 meal (w: 3×) | N: 16(16); f: 0%; age: 21.4 (1.6) | LED: 0.9 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| E2: i: 8 × 1 meal (w: 7×) | HED: 2.0 | FI [LED]: ↔ /↑ | ||||
| Yeomans et al. [71] | UK | i: 8 × 1 meal | N: 32 (32); f: 0%; | LED: 0.6 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 7× | age: S1: 22.3 (2.4), S2: 22.9 (3.8), | HED: 1.7 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| S3: 22.6 (2.8), S4: 22.5 (2.1) | ||||||
| Studies with entrée design (children) | ||||||
| Fisher et al. [35] | US | i: 4 × 1 meal | N: 53 (53); f: 52.8%; age: 5–6 (N.R.) | LED: 1.3 + 0.8 | LED: 1.1 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 3 × 7 days | HED: 1.8 + 0.8 | HED: 1.3 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Johnson et al. [36] | US | i: 1–2 meals/ wk | N: N.R. (21); f: 47.6%; | LEDE1: 1.1, HEDE1: 2.2 | LEDE1: 1.1, HEDE1: 2.2 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: N.R. | age: E1: 4.0 (0.7). E2: 2.8 (0.3) | LEDE2: 1.1, HEDE2: 2.3 | LEDE2: 1.1, HEDE2: 2.3 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||
| Kling, Roe, Keller et al. [37] | US | i: 6 × 1 meal | N: 131 (120); f: 49.2%; age: 4.4 (1.1) | LED: 0.8 | LED: 0.8 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 5 × 7 days | HED: 1.1 | HED: 1.1 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Kling, Roe, Sanchez et al. [38] | US | i: 4 × 1 meal | N: 143 (125); f: 46.4%; age: 4.2 (1.1) | LED: 0.4 + 1.3 | LED: 0.9 | EI [LED]: ↔ |
| w: 3 × 7 days | HED: 0.6 + 1.3 | HED: 1.0 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Leahy, Birch, Fisher et al. [42] | US | i: 4 × 1 meal | N: 75 (61); f: 50.8%; | LED: 0.8 | LED: 0.7 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 3 × 7 days | age: m: 4.5 (0.6). f: 4.3 (0.6) | HED: 0.9 | HED: 0.9 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||
| Leahy, Birch & Rolls [41] | US | i: 2 × 2 days | N: 29 (26); f: 61.5%; age: 4.2 (0.5) | LED: 0.9 | LED: 1.0 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 1 × 12 days | HED: 1.1 | HED: 1.2 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Olsen et al. [43] | DK | i: 2 × 1 meal | N: N.R. (74); f: 60.8%; age: 5.6 (0.8) | LED: 0.9 | LED: 0.9 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: N.R. | HED: 1.4 | HED: 1.5 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Smethers et al. [44] | US | i: 3 × 5 days | N: 56 (49); f: 46.9%; age: 4.3 (0.7) | LED: 0.9 | LED: 0.9 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 2 × 7 days | HED: 1.0 | HED: 1.1 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Spill et al. [45] | US | i: 3 × 1 day | N: 49 (39); f: 53.8%; age: 4.7 (0.6) | LED: 1.6 | LED: 1.3 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 2 × 6 days | HED: 2.0 | HED: 1.5 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Studies with preload design (adults) | ||||||
| Blatt et al. [48] | US | i: 4 × 1 day | N: 73 (68); f: 58.8%; | LED: 1.0 + 1.7 | LED: 1.2 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 3 × 7 days | age: m: 26.8 (5.8); f: 27.6 (7.0) | HED: 1.6 + 1.7 | HED: 1.6 | FI [LED]: ↑ | ||
| Gray et al. [51] | UK | i: 5 × 1 meal | N: 18 (18); f: 0%; age: 26.0 (5.2) | LED: 0.3 + N.A. | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 4 × 2–14 days | HED: 1.0 + N.A. | FI [LED]: N.R. | ||||
| *Hogenkamp et al. [52] | NL | i: 2 × 5 meals | N: 118 (105); f: 56.2%; age: 22.0 (3.0) | LED: 0.5 + 2.7 | LED: 1.2 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 1 × 28 days | HED: 1.4 + 2.7 | HED: 1.8 | FI [LED]: ↑ | |||
| Rolls et al. [59] | US | i: 2 × 1 meals | N: 24 (24); f: 100%; age: 21.8 (4.4) | LED: 0.1 + 4.5 | LED: 1.5 | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 1 × 7 days | HED: 0.5 + 4.5 | HED: 1.6 | FI [LED]: ↔ | |||
| Rolls et al. [60] | US | i: 7 × 1 meal | N: 50 (42); f: 100%; age: 26.3 (7.8) | LED: 0.3 + 2.0 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 6 × 7 days | HED: 1.3 + 2.0 | FI [LED]: ↔ | ||||
| Yeomans et al. [72] | UK | i: 6 × 1 meal | N: NR (36); f: 50.0%; age: 21.9 (3.2) | LED: 0.3 + N.A. | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 5 x | HED: 0.9 + N.A. | FI [LED]: N.R. | ||||
| Studies with preload design (children) | ||||||
| Kral et al. [39] | US | i: 3 × 1 meal | N: 94 (94); f: 53.2%; age: 8.9 (2.3) | LED: 0.6 + 0.6 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 2 × 7 days | HED: 1.0 + 0.6 | FI [LED]: N.R. | ||||
| Kral et al. [40] | US | i: 2 × 1 meal | N: 212 (212); f: 54.7%; | LED: 1.0 + 2.1 | N.A. | EI [LED]: ↓ |
| w: 1 × 7 days | age: S1: 8.3 (0.7), S2/S3: 8.3 (0.8) | HED: 1.6 + 2.1 | FI [LED]: N.R. | |||
Consumed ED was calculated with energy intake (EI) and food intake (FI), from total meal (manipulated + unmanipulated food components); EI and FI after lower ED intervention compared to the higher ED diet: ↑: increase, ↓: decrease, ↔ : no difference, *: study with > 1 assignment
Abbreviations: A analyzed sample size, DK Denmark, E trial, ED energy density, f female, HED higher energy density condition, i intervention length, LED lower energy density condition, m male, N number of participants, N.A. not available/not calculable, NL Netherlands, N.R. not reported, S subgroup, SD standard deviation, SGP Singapore, UK United Kingdom, US United States of America, w washout period, wk week, y years