Table 2.

Effects of infrasound and traffic noise on outcome measures in 37 participants in the in the laboratory-based three-arm crossover study of 72 h of exposure to simulated wind turbine infrasound, sham infrasound, and traffic noise ($n=\mathrm{37}$).

Variable	Units of measurement	Sham $\text{mean}\pm \text{SEM}$; actual/potential obs	Infrasound $\text{mean}\pm \text{SEM}$; actual/potential obs	Traffic $\text{mean}\pm \text{SEM}$; actual/potential obs	Difference (95% CI), $p$-value infrasound vs. sham	Difference (95% CI), $p$-value traffic vs. sham
Wake after sleep onset	Min	$24.49\pm 3.17$; 107/111	$23.13\pm 3.16$; 108/111	$30.56\pm 3.21$; 101/111	$-1.36$ ($-6.60$, 3.88), 0.601	6.07 (0.75, 11.39), 0.02
Electrophysiological measurements of sleep (secondary outcomes)
Sleep onset latency	Min	$10.75\pm 2.3$; 107/111	$13.22\pm 2.2$; 108/111	$13.76\pm 2.3$; 101/111	2.48 ($-2.87$, 7.82), 0.36	3.0 ($-2.4$, 8.4), 0.27
Arousal index	Events/h	$8.79\pm 0.58$; 107/111	$9.08\pm 0.58$; 108/111	$9.13\pm 0.59$; 101/111	0.29 ($-0.58$, 1.16), 0.51	0.34 ($-0.54$, 1.21), 0.45
Sleep stage % Wake	% of TST	$8.7\pm 0.9$; 107/111	$8.6\pm 0.9$; 108/111	$10.0\pm 0.9$; 101/111	$-0.1$ ($-1.7$, 1.6), 0.95	1.3 ($-0.3$, 3.0), 0.11
Sleep stage % N1	% of TST	$6.3\pm 0.4$; 107/111	$6.5\pm 0.4$; 108/111	$6.9\pm 0.4$; 101/111	0.2 ($-0.3$, 0.7), 0.49	0.6 (0.1, 1.1), 0.015
Sleep stage % N2	% of TST	$40.6\pm 1.0$; 107/111	$39.4\pm 1.0$; 108/111	$41.6\pm 1.0$; 101/111	$-1.2$ ($-3.0$, 0.6), 0.21	1.0 ($-0.8$, 2.9), 0.28
Sleep stage % N3	% of TST	$23.1\pm 0.8$; 107/111	$22.4\pm 0.8$; 108/111	$20.8\pm 0.8$; 101/111	$-0.7$ ($-1.9$, 0.4), 0.21	$-2.4$ ($-3.5$, $-1.2$), 0.0001
Sleep stage % REM	% of TST	$21.3\pm 0.6$; 107/111	$22.8\pm 0.6$; 108/111	$20.8\pm 0.6$; 101/111	1.5 (0.3, 2.7), 0.017	$-0.5$ ($-1.7$, 0.7), 0.42
Sleep stage shifts	Count	$119.7\pm 4.8$; 107/111	$116.2\pm 4.8$; 108/111	$123.9\pm 4.8$; 101/111	$-3.5$ ($-9.5$, 2.4), 0.24	4.2 ($-1.8$, 10.2), 0.17
Delta power—NREM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$481.68\pm 35.85$; 106/111	$487.28\pm 35.81$; 107/111	$467.10\pm 36.02$; 100/111	5.61 ($-27.04$, 38.25), 0.74	$-14.58$ ($-47.67$, 18.52), 0.39
Theta power—NREM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$42.61\pm 2.53$; 105/111	$41.93\pm 2.53$; 107/111	$41.99\pm 2.53$; 100/111	$-0.68$ ($-2.36$, 0.99), 0.42	$-0.62$ ($-2.31$, 1.08), 0.47
Alpha power—NREM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$20.47\pm 1.18$; 105/111	$20.54\pm 1.18$; 107/111	$20.04\pm 1.18$; 100/111	0.07 ($-0.82$, 0.96), 0.87	$-0.43$ ($-1.33$, 0.47), 0.35
Sigma power—NREM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$12.55\pm 1.11$; 105/111	$12.40\pm 1.11$; 107/111	$12.54\pm 1.12$; 100/111	$-0.16$ ($-0.75$, 0.44), 0.60	$-0.01$ ($-0.61$, 0.59), 0.97
Beta power—NREM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$10.95\pm 1.10$; 105/111	$8.99\pm 1.09$; 107/111	$11.06\pm 1.13$; 100/111	$-1.96$ ($-4.92$, 1.01), 0.20	0.11 ($-2.90$, 3.12), 0.94
Delta power—REM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$113.28\pm 6.79$; 105/111	$118.20\pm 6.75$; 107/111	$109.07\pm 6.91$; 99/111	4.92 ($-6.17$, 16.02), 0.38	$-4.21$ ($-15.57$, 7.14), 0.47
Theta power—REM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$25.74\pm 1.78$; 105/111	$25.74\pm 1.78$; 107/111	$25.14\pm 1.78$; 99/111	0.00 ($-1.14$, 1.15), 1.00	$-0.60$ ($-1.76$, 0.57), 0.31
Alpha power—REM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$11.32\pm 0.68$; 105/111	$11.28\pm 0.68$; 107/111	$11.08\pm 0.68$; 99/111	$-0.04$ ($-0.54$, 0.46), 0.87	$-0.24$ ($-0.75$, 0.26), 0.34
Sigma power—REM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$3.82\pm 0.24$; 105/111	$3.90\pm 0.24$; 107/111	$3.51\pm 0.24$; 99/111	0.08 ($-0.31$, 0.47), 0.69	$-0.31$ ($-0.71$, 0.08), 0.12
Beta power—REM	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$9.57\pm 0.92$; 105/111	$9.91\pm 0.90$; 107/111	$10.29\pm 0.93$; 99/111	0.34 ($-1.89$, 2.57), 0.77	0.72 ($-1.56$, 3.00), 0.54
Spindles in NREM	Count	$723.0\pm 57.5$; 106/111	$711.6\pm 57.5$; 107/111	$725.4\pm 57.7$; 101/111	$-11.5$ ($-53.9$, 31.0), 0.60	2.4 ($-40.5$, 45.3), 0.91
Average Spindle density in NREM	Count/min	$2.43\pm 0.19$; 106/111	$2.43\pm 0.19$; 107/111	$2.45\pm 0.19$; 101/111	0.01 ($-0.12$, 0.14), 0.91	0.03 ($-0.10$, 0.16), 0.69
Average fast spindle density in NREM	Count/min	$1.45\pm 0.17$; 106/111	$1.46\pm 0.17$; 107/111	$1.47\pm 0.17$; 101/111	0.02 ($-0.09$, 0.12), 0.73	0.03 ($-0.08$, 0.13), 0.59
Average slow spindle density in NREM	Count/min	$0.98\pm 0.14$; 106/111	$0.97\pm 0.14$; 107/111	$0.98\pm 0.14$; 101/111	$-0.01$ ($-0.10$, 0.08), 0.81	$-0.00$ ($-0.10$, 0.09), 0.96
Cardiovascular measurements
Pulse transit time	ms	$67.7\pm 2.1$; 33/37	$65.9\pm 2.1$; 36/37	$67.7\pm 2.2$; 30/37	$-1.8$ ($-6.1$, 2.5), 0.41	$-0.0$ ($-4.5$, 4.5), 0.99
Pulse wave velocity	m/s	$7.55\pm 0.35$; 33/37	$8.05\pm 0.34$; 36/37	$7.41\pm 0.37$; 30/37	0.50 ($-0.26$, 1.25), 0.20	$-0.14$ ($-0.93$, 0.66), 0.73
Reactive hyperemia (endothelial function test)	Index	$0.78\pm 0.10$; 35/37	$1.78\pm 0.10$; 32/37	$1.70\pm 0.10$; 33/37	0.00 ($-0.24$, 0.24), 0.97	$-0.08$ ($-0.32$, 0.16), 0.51
Blood pressure—systolic (24-h)	mmHg	$113.9\pm 1.8$; 1,212/1,850	$111.9\pm 1.8$; 1,246/1,850	$112.6\pm 1.8$; 1,196/1,850	$-2.1$ ($-2.9$, $-1.2$), $<0.0001$	$-1.4$ ( $-2.2$, $-0.5$), 0.002
Blood pressure—diastolic (24-h)	mmHg	$66.5\pm 1.3$; 1,212/1,850	$65.8\pm 1.3$; 1,246/1,850	$66.0\pm 1.3$; 1,196/1,850	$-0.6$ ($-1.3$, 0.1), 0.07	$-0.5$ ($-1.2$, 0.3), 0.19
Heart rate	bpm	$67.1\pm 1.3$; 1,212/1,850	$67.1\pm 1.3$; 1,246/1,850	$66.4\pm 1.3$; 1,196/1,850	0.1 ($-0.6$, 0.7), 0.80	$-0.6$ ($-1.3$, 0.1), 0.07
Blood and urine measurements
Serum cortisol	nmol/L	$413\pm 30$; 28/37	$391\pm 32$; 23/37	$382\pm 30$; 28/37	$-23$ ($-74$, 28), 0.38	$-31$ ($-80$, 17), 0.20
Glucose	mmol/L	$4.9\pm 0.1$; 28/37	$4.9\pm 0.1$; 24/37	$4.9\pm 0.1$; 29/37	0.0 ($-0.1$, 0.1), 0.88	0.0 ($-0.1$, 0.1), 0.88
Insulin	mU/L	$9.5\pm 1.0$; 28/37	$7.7\pm 1.0$; 24/37	$10.0\pm 1.0$; 29/37	$-1.7$ ($-3.3$, $-0.2$), 0.025	0.6 ($-0.9$, 2.0), 0.44
HsCRP	mg/L	$2.1\pm 0.6$; 27/37	$1.9\pm 0.7$; 20/37	$2.1\pm 0.6$; 25/37	$-0.1$ ($-1.7$, 1.4), 0.87	0.1 ($-1.4$, 1.5). 0.93
Urinary creatinine	mmol/24 h	$11.3\pm 0.7$; 31/37	$11.6\pm 0.7$; 32/37	$11.3\pm 0.7$; 32/37	0.3 ($-0.8$, 1.4), 0.54	0.0 ($-1.0$, 1.1), 0.95
Urinary noradrenaline (adjusted)a	nmol/24 h/creatinine	$19.3\pm 2.2$; 31/37	$19.4\pm 2.2$; 32/37	$23.4\pm 2.2$; 32/37	0.1 ($-4.3$, 4.4), 0.98	4.1 ($-0.2$, 8.4), 0.06
Urinary adrenaline (adjusted)a	nmol/24 h/creatinine	$3.8\pm 0.3$; 31/37	$3.7\pm 0.3$; 32/37	$4.0\pm 0.3$; 32/37	$-0.1$ ($-0.8$, 0.6), 0.81	0.2 ($-0.5$, 0.9), 0.49
Urinary dopamine (adjusted)a	nmol/24 h/creatinine	$151.4\pm 10.8$; 31/37	$160.2\pm 10.8$; 32/37	$160.1\pm 10.8$; 32/37	8.8 ($-7.3$, 25.0), 0.28	8.7 ($-7.2$, 24.7), 0.28
Electrophysiological measurements of wake (derived from the Karolinska Drowsiness Test)
Eyes open—delta	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$53.53\pm 4.35$; 392/444	$58.51\pm 4.32$; 403/444	$64.34\pm 4.42$; 379/444	4.98 ($-3.62$, 13.58), 0.26	10.81 (2.06, 19.55), 0.016
Eyes open—theta	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$21.61\pm 2.48$; 392/444	$22.50\pm 2.47$; 403/444	$22.68\pm 2.48$; 379/444	0.89 ($-0.16$, 1.94), 0.095	1.07 (0.01, 2.13), 0.048
Eyes open—alpha	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$24.97\pm 2.93$; 392/444	$24.57\pm 2.93$; 403/444	$24.48\pm 2.94$; 379/444	$-0.41$ ($-1.44$, 0.63), 0.44	$-0.50$ ($-1.55$, 0.55), 0.35
Eyes open—sigma	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$6.10\pm 0.59$; 392/444	$6.05\pm 0.59$; 403/444	$5.91\pm 0.59$; 379/444	$-0.04$ ($-0.25$, 0.17), 0.69	$-0.18$ ($-0.40$, 0.03), 0.09
Eyes open—beta	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$18.12\pm 1.31$; 392/444	$18.09\pm 1.30$; 403/444	$16.44\pm 1.31$; 379/444	$-0.02$ ($-1.33$, 1.29), 0.97	$-1.67$ ($-3.00$, $-0.34$), 0.014
Eyes closed—delta	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$49.04\pm 5.63$; 391/444	$59.28\pm 5.56$; 403/444	$50.96\pm 5.74$; 378/444	10.24 ($-2.46$, 22.95), 0.11	1.93 ($-11.01$, 14.86), 0.77
Eyes closed—theta	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$26.71\pm 3.03$; 391/444	$28.10\pm 3.03$; 403/444	$27.27\pm 3.04$; 378/444	1.39 ($-0.61$, 3.39), 0.17	0.56 ($-1.47$, 2.59), 0.59
Eyes closed—alpha	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$45.36\pm 4.62$; 391/444	$43.36\pm 4.62$; 403/444	$44.33\pm 4.63$; 378/444	$-2.00$ ($-3.95$, $-0.04$), 0.045	$-1.03$ ($-3.01$, 0.96), 0.31
Eyes closed—sigma	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$6.93\pm 0.64$; 391/444	$6.99\pm 0.64$; 403/444	$6.79\pm 0.64$; 378/444	0.07 ($-0.22$, 0.35), 0.65	$-0.14$ ($-0.43$, 0.15), 0.33
Eyes closed—beta	${\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{V}}^2$	$19.54\pm 1.36$; 391/444	$19.87\pm 1.36$; 403/444	$18.43\pm 1.37$; 378/444	0.33 ($-1.13$, 1.78), 0.66	$-1.11$ ($-2.59$, 0.37), 0.14
Affective symptoms of WTS (based on a 5-factor PCA of the original 20 visual analog scales)
Factor 1: Fatigue	Log-standardized	$0.45\pm 0.01$; 404/444	$0.46\pm 0.01$; 403/444	$0.48\pm 0.01$; 375/444	0.01 ($-0.02$, 0.05), 0.41	0.03 ($-0.00$, 0.07), 0.09
Factor 2: Irritability	Log-standardized	$0.46\pm 0.01$; 404/444	$0.46\pm 0.01$; 403/444	$0.48\pm 0.01$; 375/444	0.01 ($-0.02$, 0.04), 0.60	0.02 ($-0.01$, 0.05), 0.16
Factor 3: Nausea and Dizziness	Log-standardized	$0.47\pm 0.01$; 404/444	$0.47\pm 0.01$; 403/444	$0.46\pm 0.01$; 375/444	0.00 ($-0.02$, 0.03), 0.87	$-0.02$ ($-0.04$, 0.01), 0.19
Factor 4: Sleep disturbance	Log-standardized	$0.46\pm 0.01$; 404/444	$0.46\pm 0.01$; 403/444	$0.48\pm 0.01$; 375/444	0.00 ($-0.02$, 0.02), 0.96	0.02 (0.01, 0.04), 0.01
Factor 5: Tinnitus	Log-standardized	$0.46\pm 0.01$; 404/444	$0.46\pm 0.01$; 403/444	$0.49\pm 0.01$; 375/444	$-0.00$ ($-0.03$, 0.02), 0.79	0.03 ($-0.00$, 0.05), 0.09
Behavioral performance measures
PVT reciprocal mean reaction time	1/s	$3.78\pm 0.08$; 407/444	$3.78\pm 0.08$; 412/444	$3.79\pm 0.08$; 390/444	0.00 ($-0.05$, 0.05), 0.99	0.01 ($-0.04$, 0.06), 0.83
Tower of London grand mean execution test	s	$10.4\pm 0.6$; 409/444	$10.5\pm 0.6$; 414/444	$10.2\pm 0.6$; 384/444	0.1 ($-0.4$, 0.7), 0.64	$-0.1$ ($-0.7$, 0.4), 0.62
Tower of London grand number of errors	%	$5.7\pm 1.0$; 409/444	$5.9\pm 1.0$; 414/444	$6.7\pm 1.0$; 384/444	0.2 ($-0.9$, 1.2), 0.75	0.9 ($-0.1$, 2.0), 0.08
N-back—total number correct	Count	$40.4\pm 1.6$; 403/444	$40.9\pm 1.6$; 411/444	$41.5\pm 1.6$; 379/444	0.5 ($-0.2$, 1.2), 0.20	1.1 (0.3, 1.8), 0.005
End-of-visit questionnaire
Insomnia Severity Index (3-d modified)	Points	$5.1\pm 0.8$; 106/111	$4.8\pm 0.8$; 106/111	$7.2\pm 0.8$; 106/111	$-0.2$ ($-1.4$, 0.9), 0.68	2.1 (1.0, 3.3), $<0.001$
Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale	Points	$53.6\pm 1.1$; 106/111	$55.4\pm 1.1$; 106/111	$53.6\pm 1.1$; 106/111	1.8 (0.2, 3.5), 0.03	$-0.0$ ($-1.7$, 1.7), 0.99
Kessler-10	Points	$13.9\pm 0.6$; 106/111	$13.9\pm 0.6$; 106/111	$13.9\pm 0.6$; 106/111	0.0 ($-0.8$, 0.8), 1.00	0.1 ($-0.8$, 0.9), 0.89
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale–Depression	Points	$3.4\pm 1.0$; 106/111	$3.3\pm 1.0$; 106/111	$4.2\pm 1.0$; 106/111	$-0.1$ ($-1.5$, 1.3), 0.88	0.8 ($-0.6$, 2.2), 0.24
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale—Anxiety	Points	$2.4\pm 0.5$; 106/111	$2.5\pm 0.5$; 106/111	$3.0\pm 0.5$; 106/111	0.1 ($-0.8$, 1.0), 0.83	0.6 ($-0.3$, 1.5) 0.22
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale—Stress	Points	$5.8\pm 1.0$; 106/111	$5.1\pm 1.0$; 106/111	$6.0\pm 1.0$; 106/111	$-0.8$ ($-2.1$, 0.5), 0.23	0.2 ($-1.1$, 1.5), 0.76

Note: Actual/potential obs gives the amount of observed and recorded data being used by the mixed model compared with the potential number of observations (i.e., complete data) so readers can gauge how much missing data for each of the conditions the model is having to deal with. %, Percentage; alpha frequency band, 8–12 Hz; beta frequency band, 15–32 Hz; CI, confidence interval; delta frequency band, 0.5–4.5 Hz; HsCRP, highly sensitive C-reactive protein; N1, non-REM sleep stage 1; N2, non-REM sleep stage 2; N3, non-REM sleep stage 3; NREM, non-REM sleep; obs, observation; PCA, principal component analysis; PVT, psychomotor vigilance task (simple reaction time task); REM, rapid eye movement sleep; SEM, standard error of the mean; sigma frequency band, 12–15 Hz; theta frequency band, 4.5–8 Hz; TST, total sleep time; WTS, wind turbine syndrome.

^a Unit of measurement is the variable measured $\text{nmol}/24\mathrm{h}$ divided (adjusted) by the simultaneously measured creatinine ($\text{mmol}/24\mathrm{h}$).