Table 1.
Meta-review model summary and heterogeneity statistics for all models of probable depression, anxiety, stress, psychological distress, and post-traumatic stress disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic, including pooled prevalence and standardised mean difference.
| Prevalence during COVID-19 pandemic period (pooled prevalence) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| k (N) | Pooled prevalence | 95% CI | Prediction interval | Tau2 | I2 | QE | |
| Depression | |||||||
| Overall | 70 | 0.2809 | 0.26, 0.30 | 0.13, 0.51 | 0.24 | 99.97% | 96139.40 (<0.001) |
| General population | 15 (2330112) | 0.2288 | 0.17, 0.30 | 0.07, 0.54 | 0.47 | 99.99% | 42666.29 (<0.001) |
| Healthcare workers | 27 (1271283) | 0.2916 | 0.26, 0.32 | 0.16, 0.46 | 0.14 | 99.92% | 19685.18 (<0.001) |
| COVID-19 patients | 5 (56742) | 0.3159 | 0.22, 0.43 | 0.13, 0.60 | 0.29 | 99.72% | 1521.05 (<0.001) |
| Vuln. populations | 3 (8039) | 0.3246 | 0.17, 0.52 | 0.08, 0.72 | 0.53 | 99.35% | 286.29 (<0.001) |
| Young people | 11(1889497) | 0.3210 | 0.28, 0.36 | 0.21, 0.46 | 0.08 | 99.95% | 8796.25 (<0.001) |
| Pregnant/postpartum | 9 (134353) | 0.2620 | 0.24, 0.29 | 0.19, 0.35 | 0.04 | 99.16% | 455.32 (<0.001) |
| Anxiety | |||||||
| Overall | 61 | 0.3075 | 0.28, 0.33 | 0.14, 0.54 | 0.24 | 99.97% | 80317.56 (<0.001) |
| General population | 13 (1134349) | 0.2435 | 0.18, 0.31 | 0.08, 0.55 | 0.42 | 99.98% | 22350.45 (<0.001) |
| Healthcare workers | 24 (1130882) | 0.3141 | 0.29, 0.34 | 0.19, 0.47 | 0.11 | 99.91% | 21648.02 (<0.001) |
| COVID-19 patients | 5 (54613) | 0.3212 | 0.22, 0.44 | 0.12, 0.63 | 0.35 | 99.73% | 2976.61 (<0.001) |
| Vuln. populations | 3 (9843) | 0.4109 | 0.23, 0.61 | 0.12, 0.78 | 0.53 | 99.65% | 599.01 (<0.001) |
| Young people | 10 (1872049) | 0.3159 | 0.28, 0.35 | 0.22, 0.43 | 0.06 | 99.94% | 12655.74 (<0.001) |
| Pregnant/postpartum | 6 (93838) | 0.3597 | 0.33, 0.39 | 0.28, 0.45 | 0.03 | 98.98% | 640.38 (<0.001) |
| Stress | |||||||
| Overall | 18 | 0.3910 | 0.34, 0.44 | 0.21, 0.60 | 0.19 | 99.91% | 4910.25 (<0.001) |
| General population | 4 (240146) | 0.3819 | 0.32, 0.45 | 0.25, 0.53 | 0.08 | 99.89% | 1229.26 (<0.001) |
| Healthcare workers | 11 (239588) | 0.4087 | 0.36, 0.46 | 0.24, 0.60 | 0.14 | 99.85% | 2906.40 (<0.001) |
| Pregnant/postpartum | 1 (1765) | NA – Only one review | |||||
| Young people | 2 (2537) | 0.2509 | 0.23, 0.27 | 0.23, 0.28 | 0.00 | 5.08% | 2.50 (p = 0.11) |
| Psychological distress | |||||||
| Overall | 5 | 0.4417 | 0.32, 0.58 | 0.17, 0.75 | 0.38 | 99.95% | 5439.91 (<0.001) |
| General population | 2 (138343) | 0.4019 | 0.28, 0.54 | 0.21, 0.64 | 0.16 | 99.96% | 4813.59 (<0.001) |
| Healthcare workers | 2 (16954) | 0.3536 | 0.28, 0.44 | 0.23, 0.50 | 0.06 | 99.10% | 222.19 (<0.001) |
| Pregnant/postpartum | 1 (705) | NA – Only one review | |||||
| Post-traumatic stress disorder | |||||||
| Overall | 24 | 0.1877 | 0.15, 0.23 | 0.07, 0.43 | 0.36 | 99.87% | 5960.67 (<0.001) |
| General population | 7 (217218) | 0.1384 | 0.10, 0.20 | 0.05, 0.35 | 0.33 | 99.92% | 2268.11 (<0.001) |
| Healthcare workers | 12 (130517) | 0.2014 | 0.16, 0.26 | 0.08, 0.43 | 0.29 | 99.78% | 2420.20 (<0.001) |
| COVID-19 patients | 4 (6216) | 0.2255 | 0.14, 0.33 | 0.08, 0.49 | 0.30 | 98.52% | 458.43 (<0.001) |
| Young people | 1 (4242) | 0.3210 | 0.28, 0.36 | 0.21, 0.46 | 0.08 | 99.95% | 8796.25 (<0.001) |
| Comparison to pre-pandemic (pooled standard mean difference) | |||||||
| Outcome | k | SMD | 95% CI | Prediction interval | Tau 2 | I 2 | QE |
| Depression | 9 | 0.2 | 0.07, 0.33 | −0.09, 0.49 | 0.018 | 73.21% | 22.41 (p < 0.01) |
| Anxiety | 8 | 0.2866 | 0.12, 0.45 | −0.13, 0.70 | 0.038 | 80.59% | 26.76 (p < 0.001) |
| Other | 7 | 0.0965 | -0.07, 0.26 | −0.29, 0.48 | 0.031 | 80.58% | 24.97 (p < 0.001) |
This Table 1 provides a summary of pooled prevalence and heterogeneity statistics for meta-review models across five mental health outcomes (probable depression, anxiety, stress, psychological distress, and PTSD/PTSS) across the overall sample, and the six population subgroups (general population, healthcare workers (HCW), COVID-19 patients, pregnant/postpartum individuals, vulnerable populations, and young people). It also provides a summary of pooled standardised mean difference (SMD) and heterogeneity statistics for meta-review models that reported an effect of COVID-19 compared to pre-pandemic for three mental health outcomes (probable depression, anxiety, and other mental health conditions) across the overall sample. K, number of studies; N, number of participants; 95%CI, 95% confidence interval; Tau2, estimated amount of total heterogeneity, I2, total heterogeneity/total variability; H2, total variability/sampling variability; QE, quantile estimation; SMD, pooled standardised mean difference; PTSD, post-traumatic stress disorder/post-traumatic stress symptoms.