Table 2.

Clinical manifestations of Wolfram syndrome.

Major symptoms and signs	Common symptoms and signs
Diabetes mellitus	Neurological
Optic atrophy	Central apnea
	Dysphagia
Central diabetes insipidus	Areflexia
Sensorineural hearing loss	Epilepsy
Ataxia	Altered taste sensation and olfaction
Urinary tract problems	Headache
Neurogenic bladder	Psychiatric
Dilated urinary tract	Anxiety and panic attacks
Detrusor sphincter dyssynergia	Depression
Urinary incontinence	Altered mood
Urinary tract infection	Psychosis
	Dysautonomia
	Orthostatic hypotension
	Gastrointestinal dysmotility
	Hyperhidrosis
	Altered thermoregulation
	Endocrine
	Hypogonadism
	Hyponatremia
	Deficient growth hormone secretion
	Deficient corticotropin secretion
	General
	Fatigue
	Hypersomnolence

Adapted from Urano.⁶