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. 2023 Mar 23:1–37. Online ahead of print. doi: 10.1007/s10311-023-01591-5

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Worldwide energy supply from 1990 to 2020. In 2020, the global energy supply was 584,523,552 EJ, of which 29.47% was derived from oil, 26.80% from coal, 23.68% from natural gas, 9.84% from biofuel, and 5.21% from renewables (a). Additionally, energy consumption accounted for 400,819,444 EJ in 2020 (b), with 30.01% used by industry, 26.18% by transport, 22.08% by residential, 7.92% by commercial and public services, 2.15% by agriculture, and 1.77% for other uses. Source: (IEA 2022c). EJ: exajoules