Table 3.
Main findings from psychologically related taper research
| Authors (date) | Methodology and participants | Measure/data collection method | Main findings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Houmard et al. [17] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with experimental (no control group) follow up with 5 university cross-country runners | RPE | No significant difference in RPE between midseason, post-championship and reduced training |
| O’Connor et al. [45] | Quantitative, longitudinal quasi-experiment with two groups (normal training and control) with 22 college and university swimmers | POMS | Mood improved after taper. No change in mood of controls. Tension remained elevated above baseline after taper. Cortisol and depression unrelated during taper |
| Raglin et al. [25] | Quantitative, longitudinal quasi-experiment with three groups (dropouts, unsuccessful adherers, and successful adherers) with 84 freshmen rowers | POMS | Significant effect of time on total mood, tension, vigour and fatigue. No significant difference in mood between groups (adherers vs non-adheres). Mood of unsuccessful adherers was significantly elevated above baseline after taper |
| Raglin et al. [31] | Quantitative, cross-sectional (multiple samples across different time points) field study with 186 university swimmers | POMS | Each mood factor improved after taper. Tension remained elevated throughout the seasons. Gender significantly influenced mood responses across several seasons. However, when data across seasons were pooled, no gender effect found. Tension significantly higher in women after taper across all seasons |
| Berglund and Safstrom [44] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 14 world class canoeists | POMS and questionnaire measuring perceptions of POMS as a training titration tool | Significantly improved mood after taper. Initially doubtful of use of POMS but then became positive. Thought the use of the POMS to titrate training load had a positive impact on performance |
| Flynn et al. [46] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 13 collegiate cross-country runners and swimmers | POMS and RPE | Unchanged mood and RPE after taper for runners. Significantly improved mood and RPE after taper for swimmers |
| Raglin et al. [43] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 12 university swimmers | POMS | Mood returned to baseline after taper. Mood was significantly negatively correlated with anaerobic swimming power throughout the study duration |
| Taylor et al. [24] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 7 national swimmers | POMS | Tension, depression, confusion and vigour significantly worse after taper compared with peak training |
| Martin and Andersen [10] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment without control group with 11 college and category 3 licenced cyclists | RPE | RPE-power intercept significantly increased, and the magnitude of the slope significantly decreased after taper. RPE-HR intercept significantly increased, but there was no change in slope, after taper |
| Martin et al. [47] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment without control group with 11 college and category 3 licenced cyclists | POMS | No significant change in mood |
| Margaritis et al. [30] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: placebo/control and supplementation) with 24 competitive triathletes | POMS | Mood significantly improved after taper |
| Neary et al. [23] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment without a control group (three groups: 30%, 50% and 80% reduction in training load) with 11 competitive cyclists | RPE | No significant difference in RPE across condition or time. RPE-HR significantly improved in the 50% reduction in training load group at post taper, compared with pre-taper |
| Hanton et al. [22] | Qualitative (methodology not reported/explicit) with 10 international athletes | Semi-structured interviews | Athletes thought it was important to have a good start at competition and this told them their taper was right. Competitive stressors identified by athletes included poor mental, physical and technical preparation |
| Cresswell and Eklund [35] | Qualitative (methodology not reported/explicit) 15 professional rugby union players | Semi-structured interviews | Transition from taper to base fitness work was identified as a source of burnout |
| Atlaoui et al. [48] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 13 national or international swimmers | Perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire (perceptions of training, sleep, leg pain, infection, concentration, efficacy, anxiety, irritability and general stress) | Changes in total score of fatigue between intense training and taper was negatively related to high frequency heart-rate variability and positively related to low frequency heart-rate variability and the LF/HF ratio |
| Coutts et al. [49] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: normal training/control and intense training) with 16 national or international triathletes | DALDA | No significant group or time difference in sources of stress. Intense training group reported significant improvement in symptoms of stress after taper |
| Coutts et al. [9] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: normal training/control and intense training) with 16 national or international triathletes | RESTQ-Sport-76 | Intense training group reported significantly improved stress, lack of energy, physical complaints, fitness/injury, fitness/being in shape after taper, compared with the control group |
| Coutts and Raeburn [50] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: normal training/control and intense training) with 20 state rugby league players | RESTQ-Sport-76 | Intense training group reported significantly improved physical recovery, general well-being, fatigue, and disturbed breaks after taper compared with pre-taper |
| Olusoga et al. [51] | Qualitative (methodology not reported/explicit) with 12 world class diving, sailing, swimming, bowls, equestrian, field hockey, lacrosse or table tennis coaches | Semi-structured interviews | Managing athletes psychologically and preparing athletes for competition were stressors identified by coaches. One coach noted that “making sure the taper is right” was a key concern |
| Santhiago et al. [20] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 10 elite swimmers | POMS | Vigour was significantly worse after taper compared with pre-taper |
| Zehsaz et al. [52] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: control and three weeks of taper) with 24 elite cyclists | POMS | Mood significantly improved in the taper group. Mood was significantly better in the taper group after weeks 1 and 2 of taper, compared with the control group |
| Dupuy et al. [53] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment without a control group with 11 provincial endurance sport athletes | STROOP, POMS and RESTQ-Sport-76 | Fatigue, vigour and energy index returned to baseline after taper. Reaction time significantly improved after taper. RPE remained unchanged |
| Tobar [54] | Quantitative, cross-sectional (10 years) quasi experiment (two groups: high and low trait anxiety) with 159 university swimmers | POMS and STAI | Depression, anger and total mood significantly improved after taper for both groups. Low trait anxiety swimmers reported significantly less anger after taper compared with baseline. High trait anxiety swimmers reported significantly less depression after taper compared with baseline. Tension remained elevated after taper in both groups. Female swimmers reported less fatigue than men after taper, compared with baseline. Female swimmers reported more tension after taper compared with male swimmers. Compared with low trait anxiety swimmers, high trait anxiety swimmers reported less vigour and more confusion |
| Dupuy et al. [55] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment without control group with 11 provincial endurance sport athletes | POMS, RESTQ-Sport-76 and RPE | RPE remained unchanged. Vigour, energy index and fatigue significantly improved after taper. General stress, sport-specific stress, general recovery and sport-specific recovery significant improved after taper |
| Gomes et al. [36] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment without control group with 10 national tennis players | DALDA | Symptoms of stress significantly improved after taper |
| Karimi et al. [34] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (three groups: control, 50% taper, and 75% taper) with 30 high-level wrestlers | BRUMS | Significant group or time effect on mood (specific findings unclear) |
| Kennedy et al. [41] | Mixed-method, longitudinal field study with follow up focus groups with 25 university swimmers | Form scale and focus groups | Perceived form significantly improved after taper 2 compared with taper 1, build 2 and build 3. Perceived feeling significantly improved after taper 2 compared with build 1, taper 1, build 3 and taper 3. Perceived feeling significantly improved after taper 3 compared with build 1 and taper 1. Energy level significantly improved after taper 2 compared with any other period |
| Anderson et al. [37] | Qualitative (methodology not reported/explicit) with 17 elite athletes and 6 elite coaches in rowing, swimming or diving | Semi-structured interviews | One athlete reported identifying their optimal psychological state through taper. Optimal psychological state prior to competition was characterised by feeling confident, having good body language, the right level of nerves, feeling able to cope and a sense of calm. Physical and psychological preparation, training base and psychological recovery were factors identified as contributing to a peak performance. Poor preparation and a lack of recovery were identified as factors preventing an optimal psychological state. Being in the correct psychological state prior to performance was considered key to optimal psychological states during competition |
| Aubry et al. [19] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: control and intense training) with 40 regional or national triathletes | POMS and RPE | Unclear changes in RPE. Fatigue and energy index of acutely fatigued athletes improved, returning to baseline values, after taper. Unclear within- and between-group differences in vigour |
| Hausswirth et al. [56] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: control and overload training) with 27 well-trained triathletes | POMS | Athletes diagnosed as functionally overreached reported significantly less fatigue compared with pre-taper (end of overload) |
| Crowcroft et al. [57] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: control and heat and hypoxic) with 18 well-trained triathletes | RPE and perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire (pain, recovery and fatigue) | Small likely greater improvement in pain in the control group compared with the heat and hypoxic group. No clear differences between groups in recovery, fatigue or RPE |
| Cruickshank and Collins [58] | Qualitative, pragmatism with 15 elite rugby union, rugby league, soccer, and Olympic individual and team sport managers, head coaches or performance directors | Semi-structured interviews | Optimal use of dark side behaviour was determined by contextual and interpersonal awareness of when to use them. One performance director said they would not use dark side behaviours during taper as they had to “get on and deal with what’s there.” |
| Bellenger et al. [59] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment without a control group with 15 local runners and triathletes | DALDA and perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire (mood state, energy levels, stress fatigue and muscle soreness) | Fatigue, muscle soreness, worse-than-normal symptoms of stress and energy levels almost certainly improved after taper. Possible or very likely trivial changes in mood and stress after taper |
| Bouaziz et al. [60] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 16 elite Rugby Sevens players | Perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire (perceptions of training, sleep, leg pain, infection, concentration, efficacy, anxiety, irritability and general stress) | Total score of fatigue significantly improved after taper and positively correlated with the cortisol: cortisone ratio |
| Flatt et al. [61] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 10 collegiate swimmers | Perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire (perceived sleep quality, fatigue, muscle soreness, stress and mood) | Sleep, fatigue and muscle soreness significantly improved after taper compared with overload measurements. Sleep significantly improved after taper compared with baseline measurements |
| Myers et al. [62] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 10 international swimmers | BRUMS and RESTQ-Sport-76 |
Total mood disturbance lowest after taper. Slope for vigour and fatigue was increasing and decreasing, respectively, over time. Improvement in total stress and total recovery after taper. Slope for fatigue, emotional exhaustion and injury decreased over time. Slope for social relaxation and personal accomplishment increased over time. BRUMS fatigue, fitness, injury and fatigue (RESTQ-Sport-76) had a significant negative relationship with FINA points over time |
| Ritchie et al. [18] | Qualitative (methodology not reported/explicit) with 7 Olympic and Paralympic track and field coaches | Semi-structured interviews | Psychological preparation was integrated into taper planning. Confidence considered important during taper, with one coach noting “a lot of tapering is about confidence.” Mentally preparing athletes for competition was a conscious decision during taper. One coach noted that “we have to get athletes where they are empowered and mentally strong.” Coaches reported using positive feedback and giving information about training they had done to increase confidence. Coaches also reported using specific confidence building sessions during taper. Coaches monitored athletes psychological state, such as their confidence, throughout taper. Taper was considered a collaborative process, and the quality of the coach athlete relationship was considered key for effective tapering. Specifically, honesty, appropriate praise and being there for the athlete were highlighted as important. Coaches also thought it was important athletes were confident in their coaches. Psychological challenges during taper included maintaining an optimal psychological state, managing over and under confidence, “dealing with boredom” and maintaining a focus on preparation. Coaches also thought their mental state could be a challenge. For example, not being negatively affected by the environment and maintaining composure and control around athletes were identified as specific challenges |
| Rønnestad et al. [63] | Quantitative, case study with 1 elite cross-country mountain biker | Perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire (well-being of the legs), RPE | Perceived feeling in legs progressively got worse during the overload and then progressively improved during taper. RPE improved during taper |
| Venhorst et al. [39] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: drop task and control/taper) with 11 local runners | Perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire, FS, FAS, ACRISS, FSS | Compared with the drop task group, the control group experienced significantly better muscle discomfort, unpleasantness, perceived physical strain, perceived mental strain and positive valence following the 20-km time trial |
| Winwood et al. [64] | Mixed-method, open and closed survey questions with 454 regional-professional strongman athletes | Tapering practices of strongman athletes survey | Psychological readiness (feeling rested and mentally prepared) highlighted as a reason for tapering. For example, one athlete said, “To create the ‘itch/desire’ for competition” and another said, “come into the contest mentally and physically ready” |
| Botonis et al. [33] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 8 high-level water polo players | Perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire (fatigue, sleep quality, muscle soreness, stress levels and mood) | Wellness significantly improved after taper compared with the overload phase. Wellness across both weeks of taper stayed relatively unchanged. Throughout the training period, daily internal training load was moderately negatively correlated with morning wellness scores. Significant positive correlations between % reduction in internal training load between the overload and taper period and wellness scores. Same finding, albeit a negative relationship, found for sleep quality |
| Figueiredo et al. [65] | Quantitative, longitudinal field study with 16 elite soccer players | DALDA (only part B) | Almost certain improvement in stress tolerance after taper compared with the overload period. Very likely improvement in stress tolerance after taper compared with the baseline period. Non-significant correlation between lnRMSSD and stress tolerance during taper |
| Rønnestad and Vikmoen [42] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment with a control group (two groups: 6-day overload + 5-day taper or 11-day taper/control) with 17 elite cyclists | POMS, perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire (well-being of the legs), RPE | No significant changes in RPE. Fatigue significantly improved after taper compared with pre-taper, in the experimental group. No other significant changes in mood after taper in either group. No significant within-group changes in perceived well-being in legs. At day 11, experimental group had better perceived well-being in legs compared with the control group. Improvement in well-being of legs after taper was greater in the experimental group compared with the control group |
| Travis et al. [66] | 2 national weightlifters | SRSS | Both athletes reported higher improved mean recovery and stress scores after taper compared with baseline measurements |
| Wilson et al. [67] | Qualitative, interpretive constructionist with 7 elite half pipe snowboarders, swimmers, ice skaters, downhill mountain bikers, trampolinists or rock climbers | Semi-structured interviews | Athletes highlighted preparing for competition as requiring mental toughness as it involves focusing on the present moment to avoid distractions. Athletes reported using self-compassion during taper to cope with difficulties through reflection, acceptance, understanding, self-care, personal detachment and re-appraisal. One athlete reported using self-compassion during taper to manage self-criticisms, prevent rumination, and enhance self-belief. The athlete said “It’s important to be mentally tough, like hard training and getting through hard workouts. I can be a little bit hard on myself during the taper time where you expect everything to go smoothly. At that point you have to use self-compassion. You’ve already done the training and you have been mentally tough, but then you have to change your mind so you trust what you have done and believe that it has worked and you bring down the volume and start to feel better … I’m not saying that during hard training you don’t have self- compassion or even within the taper time you don’t need to be mentally tough. But I think in the timing, sometimes I’ll just in- instinctively use one more than the other.” |
| Campbell et al. [16] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment without a control group with 13 trained Australian Rules players | Perceived fatigue and wellness questionnaire (sleep quality, readiness to train, general muscular soreness, fatigue, stress, mood and motivation), POMS, RESTQ-Sport-52 | Wellness significantly worse after taper compared with normal training. Moderate effect for recovery between intense training and tapered training. Readiness to train, total mood disturbance, tension, fatigue, vigour, and general stress and recovery significantly improved after taper compared with intense training. Sport-specific stress and recovery significantly improved after taper compared with intense training and normal training. Specific improvements in emotional stress, lack of energy, injury, emotional exhaustion, physical complaints (stress subscales), success, physical recovery, general well-being and social recovery (recovery subscales) after taper compared with intense training. Recovery subscale sleep quality significantly worse after taper compared with intense training. Across the whole study duration, general soreness, readiness to train and overall wellness were positively correlated with CMJ height. Perceptions of motivation and readiness to train were negatively correlated with distance per minute during taper. Readiness to train was positively correlated with CMJ height and negatively correlated with sprint time. Vigour was negatively correlated with sprint time. Sport-specific stress was positively correlated with player load and negatively correlated with high-speed running distance. General soreness was negatively correlated with high-speed running distance. Perceptions of tension, general soreness, anger, sRPE and total mood disturbance were negatively correlated with Wattbike PP. Anger (POMS) was positively correlated with sRPE. Tension (POMS) was negatively correlated with CMJ height. Readiness to train and general stress were negatively correlated with sprint time. General recovery and sport-specific recovery were negatively correlated with distance, distance per minute, player load and player load per minute |
| Dobson et al. [40] | Quantitative, longitudinal experiment without a control group with 13 collegiate swimmers | ABQ, RESTQ-Sport-52 | Sport devaluation, reduced accomplishment, general stress and emotional exhaustion were significantly worse after taper compared with baseline. Self-efficacy significantly worse after taper compared with baseline and overload training |
| Pritchard et al. [68] | Mixed-method, open and closed survey questions with 72 elite CrossFit athletes | Tapering practices of CrossFit athletes | When asked why they taper, CrossFit athletes highlighted psychological readiness and psychological recovery as key factors. For example, one CrossFit athlete said “To mentally prepare for competition. I want to feel fresh during competition”. Another athlete said, “To ensure my body and mind is fully recovered” |
ABQ Athlete Burnout Questionnaire, ACRISS Action Crisis Scale, BRUMS Brunel Mood Scale, DALDA Daily Analysis of Life Demands-Athletes, FAS Felt Activation Scale, FS Feeling Scale, FSS Short Flow State Scale, LF/HF low-frequency/high-frequency, POMS Profile of Mood State, RESTQ-Sport-52 Recovery-Stress Questionnaire-Sport-52 item, RESTQ-Sport-76 Recovery Stress Questionnaire- Sport-76 item, RPE Rating of Perceived Exertion, SRSS Short Recovery-Stress Scale, STAI State-Trait Anxiety Inventory