Table 3.

Self‐regulated cues for dynamic regulation of cells

	Materials/technics	Molecular properties	Mechanisms and characteristic
Piezoelectric effect	Poly(vinylidene fluoride) Collagen[ 252 , 253 ]		“Cell force‐electricity‐bio signaling‐cell force” loop Limited chooses of piezoelectric materials
Diffusibility	Charge/hydrophobic/supermolecule interactions[ 254 , 255 , 256 ]		Molecular manipulation of cell force loading rate of mechanical transduction Only for 2D culture Very limited adjusting range of ligand diffusibility
Viscoelasticity	Ions/supermolecule/hydrogen bond crosslinked system[ 257 , 258 , 259 , 260 , 261 , 262 , 263 , 264 ]		Exhibit a combination of storage of elastic energy and time‐dependent energy dissipation Affect the force loading rate of mechanical input on the integrin–receptor molecules interactions Limited material models
Degradation	Chem/biocleavable hydrogel[ 265 , 266 , 267 ]		Facilitate the cellular force mediated remodeling and provide space for cell activities Very hard to control the degradation kinetics
Stress/strain stiffening	Polyisocyanopeptides hydrogel Collagen[ 268 , 269 , 270 ]		Limited material models Facilitate long‐range force transmission Narrow stiffness range (<1 kPa)