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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2024 Apr 15.
Published in final edited form as: Biol Psychiatry. 2023 Feb 10;93(8):739–750. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.02.004

Table 1:

Empirical findings and theory-based hypotheses linking the development of specific computational phenotypes to the symptomatology of addiction and anxiety. 𝔼A-Empirical research conducted in animal models. 𝔼H-Empirical research conducted with human subjects. 𝕋- Theory or a review paper.

Computational
phenotype		 Relation to addiction Relation to anxiety Developmental
findings		 Hypothesized mechanisms of
developmental vulnerability to
psychopathology
Model-based control Drug exposure decreases model-based control. 𝔼A(41-44) 𝕋(38)
Model-based control is reduced in drug-dependent individuals. 𝔼H(46-50) 𝕋(38)
Reduced model-based control is associated with greater propensity toward compulsive behavior. 𝔼H (54,55)
Reduced model-based control predicts the emergence of compulsive drug consumption. 𝔼A(45) 𝔼H(58)		 Worry and rumination may depend in part on model-based simulation processes. 𝔼H(68) 𝕋(65) Reliance on model-based control increases with age. 𝔼H(15,29,32-36) 𝕋(28) Vulnerability to developing addiction may be greater at younger ages due to reduced model-based control.
Drug exposure during development might attenuate the normative development of model-based control.
Age-related improvement in mental simulation abilities might lay the cognitive foundation for heightened worry and rumination (in interaction with negative valence biases in information processing).
Pavlovian processes
Pavlovian-instrumental transfer Pavlovian-instrumental transfer is greater in drug-dependent individuals and high-risk drinkers. 𝔼H(89-93)
Drug exposure increases Pavlovian-instrumental transfer. 𝔼A(84-88)		 Anxious individuals exhibit greater Pavlovian-instrumental transfer.𝔼H(98,99) Pavlovian-instrumental transfer decreases from childhood into adolescence 𝔼H(100) and may stabilize from adolescence into adulthood 𝔼H(100,101). Developmental changes in Pavlovian-instrumental transfer may modulate the influence of valenced environmental exposures on symptom expression (e.g. cue-induced craving/drug seeking).
Latent state inference Alteration in latent state inference relates to anxious symptomatology.𝔼H(117,118)
Propensity to infer multiple latent states is associated with extinction-resistance of threat associations 𝔼H(114).		 The tendency to infer distinct latent states based on shifts in environmental statistics may increase with age 𝕋(113). Anxiety in younger individuals might reflect difficulty discriminating between threat and safety states due to a tendency to infer fewer latent states. At later ages, anxiety might reflect extinction-resistance of threat associations due to a tendency to infer multiple latent states.