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. 2023 Mar 25;14:1665. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-37402-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a Schematic image of the ref-OECT-based E-AB sensor. b Testing scheme of the ref-OECT-based E-AB sensor. Output of channel current in OECT can be monitored during the operation of E-AB sensor in the 3-electrode setup. c Sensing mechanism of the ref-OECT-based E-AB sensor for TGF-β₁. Without the existence of TGF-β₁, the methylene blue (MB) redox reporter is closer to the gate electrode surface, which results in a high gate current (I_G) as well as a larger channel current modulation (I_DS). In the presence of TGF-β₁, a conformational change occurs in the aptamer, and the MB redox reporter moves further from the gate electrode surface, which results in low gate current and smaller channel current modulation.