Table 2.
Effects of the intervention and time on the primary outcomes among older adults (Intention-to-treat method and per protocol based).
| Measures | Intervention group | Control group | Time × group | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | Baseline mean (SD) | Post mean (SD) | Change mean (95% CI) | p | n | Baseline mean (SD) | Post mean (SD) | Change mean (95% CI) | p | F | p | ||
| Trail Making Test-part A, time | ITT | 140 | 20.9 (5.2) | 21.3 (5.9) | −0.39 (−1.2 to 0.5) | 140 | 20.9 (4.9) | 21.0 (4.9) | −0.1 (−0.9 to 0.8) | 0.25 | |||
| PPB | 125 | 20.9 (5.2) | 21.4 (6.0) | −0.45 (−1.4 to 0.5) | 128 | 20.8 (4.7) | 20.9 (4.8) | −0.1 (−1.0 to 0.9) | 0.30 | ||||
| Trail Making Test-part B, time | ITT | 140 | 42.4 (17.0) | 42.5 (21.7) | −0.05 (−3.0 to 2.9) | 140 | 43.2 (21.9) | 43.2 (18.5) | −0.1 (−3 to 2.9) | 0.00 | |||
| PPB | 125 | 41.5 (15.8) | 41.5 (21.3) | −0.01 (−3.3 to 3.3) | 128 | 42.9 (22.1) | 42.9 (18.3) | −0.1 (−3.4 to 3.2) | 0.00 | ||||
| Digit symbol substitution test, score | ITT | 140 | 52.6 (10.3) | 53.2 (10.1) | −0.57 (−1.4 to 0.2) | 140 | 51.6 (9.7) | 51.7 (9.8) | −0.1 (−0.9 to 0.7) | 0.67 | |||
| PPB | 125 | 53.3 (10.1) | 53.9 (9.8) | −0.64 (−1.5 to 0.2) | 128 | 51.8 (9.7) | 51.9 (9.7) | −0.1 (−1 to 0.8) | 0.68 | ||||
| Word list memory tasks immediately, score | ITT | 140 | 7.5 (1.3) | 7.6 (1.3) | −0.11 (−0.3 to 0.0) | 140 | 7.3 (1.3) | 7.5 (1.3) | −0.1 (−0.3 to 0.0) | 0.06 | |||
| PPB | 125 | 7.6 (1.1) | 7.7 (1.1) | −0.12 (−0.3 to 0.1) | 128 | 7.3 (1.3) | 7.4 (1.3) | −0.2 (−0.3 to 0.0) | 0.07 | ||||
| Word list memory tasks, recall, score | ITT | 140 | 3.8 (2.1) | 4.0 (2.1) | −0.20 (−0.5 to 0.1) | 140 | 3.6 (2.1) | 3.6 (2.1) | 0.0 (−0.3 to 0.2) | 0.82 | |||
| PPB | 125 | 3.9 (2.1) | 4.1 (2.1) | −0.22 (−0.5 to 0.1) | 128 | 3.6 (2.1) | 3.6 (2.1) | 0.0 (−0.3 to 0.3) | 0.77 | ||||
| Word list memory tasks recognition, score | ITT | 140 | 7.5 (1.5) | 7.5 (1.7) | −0.02 (−0.2 to 0.2) | 140 | 7.1 (1.8) | 7.2 (1.8) | 0.0 (−0.2 to 0.2) | 0.01 | |||
| PPB | 125 | 7.6 (1.4) | 7.6 (1.5) | −0.03 (−0.3 to 0.2) | 128 | 7.1 (1.9) | 7.1 (1.8) | 0.0 (−0.3 to 0.2) | 0.01 | ||||
| Logical memory immediately, score | ITT | 140 | 5.4 (2.0) | 5.8 (2.1) | −0.37 (−0.7 to −0.1) | * | 140 | 5.4 (1.9) | 5.8 (2.2) | −0.4 (−0.7 to −0.2) | ** | 0.08 | |
| PPB | 125 | 5.5 (2.0) | 5.9 (2.0) | −0.41 (−0.7 to −0.1) | * | 128 | 5.4 (1.9) | 5.9 (2.2) | −0.5 (−0.8 to −0.2) | ** | 0.10 | ||
| Logical memory recall, score | ITT | 140 | 5.3 (2.1) | 5.7 (2.0) | −0.40 (−0.7 to −0.1) | ** | 140 | 5.1 (2.1) | 5.6 (2.3) | −0.6 (−0.9 to −0.3) | *** | 0.78 | |
| PPB | 125 | 5.4 (2.1) | 5.8 (2.0) | −0.44 (−0.7 to −0.1) | ** | 128 | 5.1 (2.0) | 5.8 (2.2) | −0.6 (−0.9 to −0.3) | *** | 0.75 | ||
| Logical memory recognition, score | ITT | 140 | 6.4 (1.9) | 6.9 (1.9) | −0.51 (−0.8 to −0.3) | *** | 140 | 6.5 (1.8) | 6.6 (2.0) | −0.1 (−0.4 to 0.2) | 5.04 | * | |
| PPB | 125 | 6.5 (1.9) | 7.1 (1.9) | −0.56 (−0.9 to −0.3) | *** | 128 | 6.6 (1.9) | 6.7 (2.0) | −0.1 (−0.4 to 0.2) | 4.80 | * | ||
Adjusted for baseline measurements, age, sex, education, and medication using analyses of covariance. Missing data imputed using last observation carried forward. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001. ITT, intention-to-treat; PPB, per protocol based.