Table 3.

Preclinical and clinical studies on T cell co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory molecules of the integrin superfamilies.

Molecule on APC	Receptor on T cell	Experimental model	Effects on AD	Related cytokines	Perspectives/limitations	Ref.
Leucocyte integrin subfamily
ICAM-1	LFA-1	▪ KCs stimulated with TNF-α and IFN-γ in vitro ▪ UV-LED treatment	↓ICAM-1 expression	IL-4, IFN-γ	▪ Show promise for treating AD ▪ Need more clinical studies for further testing	115
		▪ NC/Nga mice ▪ Anti-LFA-1 mAb treatment	↓Skin lesion development ↓IgE and lymphocyte cytokine production			116
		Lesional skin of chronic and acute AD patients	↑ICAM-1 expression			117
		Lesional skin of AD patients	↑ICAM-1 expression on KCs ICAM-1 was not a suitable marker of actual disease activity			118
		Serum samples of AD patients	↑sICAM-1 level			119–121
		▪ Severe intractable AD in children ▪ IVIG treatment	↓sICAM-1 level ICAM-1 level may be useful for monitoring disease activity of AD in childhood			122
		▪ AD patients ▪ Tacrolimus treatment	↓ICAM-1 expression			123
		▪ AD patients ▪ Treatment with efalizumab	Symptom improvement ↓Skin inflammatory cell infiltration ↓Erythema, excoriation, and pruritus			124–127

APC, antigen-presenting cell; LFA-1, lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1; ICAM-1, intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1.