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. 2023 Mar 6;12(3):651. doi: 10.3390/antiox12030651

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) levels in aging and aging-related diseases. The GDF15 levels increase during the process of normal aging. GDF15 transient elevations during early life (up to 40 years old) could have beneficial effects on stress resolution However, these levels can increase over the normal levels (broken arrows) in individuals over 40 years old and could have adverse effects and produce stress. Elevated levels are produced during mitochondrial dysfunction, age-related diseases, all-cause mortality, and sarcopenia. This figure was modified from reference [269].