Table 1.

ROS/RNS and promoters of free radicals; antioxidant systems; and positive and negative effects of oxidative stress on diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease.

ROS/RNS and Promoters of Free Radicals	Antioxidants System	Positive Impacts of Free Radicals	Negative Impacts of Free Radicals	Ref.
Superoxide radical anion (O2•−) Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) Monoamine oxidase (MAO) Singlet oxygen(1O2) Hydroxyl radical (OH•) Hydroperoxyl radical (HOO•) Nitric oxide (NO•)	Superoxide dismutase (SOD): Mn-SOD, Cu/Zn-SOD Catalase Glutathione peroxidase Thioredoxin peroxidase NAD/NADP transhydrogenase Cytochrome c oxidase Vitamin E UQH2	Signalling pathways and cell structures synthesis (within fibroblasts, endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, cardiac myocytes) Immune system activity rise Induction of mitogenic response Vasodilation Angiogenesis Wound healing	Lipid peroxidation Damage to cell membranes and lipoproteins Cytotoxic and mutagenic compounds Conformational modifications of proteins DNA lesions Loss of epigenetic information Hypertension Atherosclerosis	[66,67]
Disease	Biomarkers	Mechanism of action and effects of oxidative stress
Diabetes	↑malondialdehyde ↑8-isoprostane ↑4-hydroxynonenal ↑glycated haemoglobin ↑advanced oxidation protein products ↑protein carbonyls ↓glutathione ↓superoxide dismutase ↓catalase	Lipid peroxidation Protein oxidation Decreased insulin activity Hyperglycaemia Stimulation of the polyol pathway Stimulation of glucose autoxidation Increase in advanced glycosylation end products mtDNA and proteins conformational modifications		[23,68,68,69,70,71]
Obesity	↑tumour necrosis factor-α ↑nuclear factor-κB ↑interleukin-1β ↑interleukin 6 ↑plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 ↓superoxide dismutase ↓catalase ↓vitamin A ↓vitamin E ↓vitamin C	Excess of pro-inflammatory cytokines and expression of adhesion molecules and growth factors Depleted antioxidant levels Increase in free fatty acids Thrombosis and insulin resistance		[72]
Cardiovascular Disease	↑oxidized low-density lipoprotein ↑tumour necrosis factor-α ↑nuclear factor-κB ↑interleukin-1β ↑interleukin 6 ↑8-Hydroxyl-2′-deoxyguanosine ↑myeloperoxidase ↑F2-isoprostanes ↑biopyrrins ↓vitamin C ↓glutathione peroxidase 1 ↓total antioxidant status	Endothelial dysfunction Inflammation in blood vessels Atherosclerosis Hypertension Cardiac hypertrophy Cardiomyocytes apoptosis Oxidative damage in DNA Lipid peroxidation		[73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80]

Note: ↑ is increase, ↓ is decrease.