Table 2.

Design principles, preparation methods, and applications of biomimetic natural biomaterials

Modification	Biomaterials	Properties	Methods	Principles	Applications	References
Electroactive design	Collagen/chitosan	Conductivity	Loading with conductive substances or modification of electroactive functional groups	Electronic vacancy/movement, ionizable groups	Cardiac/skin/nerve/muscle tissue engineering, diagnosis	[117–125]
	Collagen/PVDF/M13-bacteriophage	Piezoelectric	Loading with piezoelectric materials	Ordered nature of nano- or liquid-crystalline in biomaterials	Biosensing monitoring, health monitoring, dentistry, cardiac/skin tissue engineering	[126–138]
	Cellulose/silk	Triboelectric	Loading with triboelectric materials	Charges generated by friction	Human–machine interactions, health monitoring, peripheral nerve restoration, smart wearables	[139–144]
Biomechanics design	Cellulose/collagen/alginate	Mechanical enhancement	Bionic structuring, multiple networks, doped nanomaterials	Nano enhancement, improving cross-linking density	Cartilage/bone/muscle tissue engineering	[148–156]
	HA/collagen/alginate	Viscoelasticity	Chemical modification, mimics ECM dynamic mechanics	Abundant dynamic covalent bonds	Cell niche, mediating cell behavior, ophthalmology, drug delivery, tissue regeneration	[157–165]
	PVA/HA	Anti-fatigue	Adding crystals composites and ordered folding units, introduction of hierarchical structure	Multiscale design, polymer chain entanglements	Cardiac/skin/neuro/cartilage/bone/muscle tissue engineering,	[166–169]
	CMCS/PEG/HA	Injection	Chemical/physical modification	Weak (non-covalent) cross-linking, shear thinning	Drug delivery, in situ moldability, targeted therapy	[170–176]
Interface design	PEG/gelatin	Superhydrophilicity or superhydrophobicity	Plasma treatment, template, spraying, electrochemical, self-assembly, vapor deposition, etching	Surface roughness, surface energy	Cell culture/gradient scaffold construction, skin repair, dentistry, artificial vascular	[177–179]
	Retinin	Anti-adhesion	Chemical modification, spraying,	Physical barriers, reduced contact area/surface energy	Abdominal wall defect treatment, anti-protein adsorption	[180]
	PEG/Chitosan	Wet adhesion	Chemical modification, electrochemical, etching	Electrostatic interaction, Strong water absorption	Wound dressing, preventing infection, wet tissue adhesion, wound closure hemostasis	[181]
Stimulus responsiveness design	PEG/PVA/MNP	Magnetic field response	Embedding magnetic nanomaterials	Moving charge or changing electric field	Cartilage/bone tissue engineering, diagnosis	[192, 195–198]
	Porphyrin/fibrin	Sound sensitivity	Embedding sonosensitizers nanomaterials	High acoustic sensitization activity	Controlled drug release, tissue engineering,	[191, 199]
	PEO/chitosan	pH sensitivity	Chemical modification	Ionizable groups or acid-cleavable bonds	Targeted drug delivery, tissue regeneration	[193, 200–203]
	Chitosan/gelatin	Temperature sensitivity	Adding thermosensitive polymers	Low glass transition temperature	Drug delivery, tissue regeneration, injection-based cell therapy	[204–207]
	GSH/mussel/DTT	Redox response	Chemical modification, physical doping	Redox-responsive chemical bonds, cascade response	Targeted drug delivery, cancer treatment	[208, 209]
Self-healing design	PAA/gelatin/SA	Rapid self-healing	Chemical modification, ion complexation	Weak sacrificial links	Skin/nerve/muscle/cartilage tissue repair	[179]
Microstructure design	HAP/HA/PLGA/collagen	Anisotropic surface	Electrospinning, lithography and molding, microfluidics, 3D printing, sacrificial templates, self-assembly, freeze-drying	Surface roughness, microscale effects, topology	Guiding cell fate, nerve/bone tissue regeneration	[214–231]
	Collagen/carrageenan	3D microstructure			Vascularization, drug release, transfer of nutrients and wastes, mediating cell fate, cartilage/skin/bone tissue engineering	[235–254]

PVDF Polyvinylidene difluoride, ECM Extracellular matrix, PVA Polyvinyl alcohol, HA Hyaluronic acid, CMCS Carboxymethyl chitosan, PEG Polyethylene glycol, HAP Hydroxyapatite, PLGA Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid), MNPs Magnetic nanoparticles, PEO Polyethylene oxide, GSH Glutathione, DTT Dithiothreitol, PAA Polyacrylic acid, SA Sodium alginate