Table 6.

ABMs of inability to express exploratory or foraging behaviour in individual pens in dairy farms

ABM	Comments
Non‐nutritive oral manipulation	Definition: Licking, chewing or sucking directed towards bars, hutch, bedding or empty bottle (Downey et al., 2022). Sensitivity: High for foraging behaviour. Sensitivity is considered high especially when there is restricted contact with neighbouring animal. Specificity: Low. Abnormal oral behaviours can also occur in situations of isolation stress or inability to perform sucking behaviour.
Tongue flicks	Definition: Tongue extends out of the mouth without touching other objects or forming a full or partial circular motion or extends up to the nose before retracting back into mouth and repeating at least once more within 1 s. This can occur while eating and ruminating (Downey et al., 2022). Sensitivity: Low. Not all animals experiencing inability to forage or explore will show this behaviour. Sensitivity increases in young calves (the current hypothesis is that this behaviour is a precursor of tongue rolling). Specificity: High.
Tongue rolling	Definition: Tongue is held in a full or partial circular position or moves in a full or partial circular motion; this can occur when the tongue is held within the mouth or extended outside it (adapted from Downey et al., 2022). Sensitivity: Low (see tongue flicks). Although it can be more frequent in older calves, it can also occur in young calves (< 8 weeks of age). Specificity: High.