Table 16.

ABMs of separation stress in cow–calf contact systems

ABM	Comments
Vocalisations	Definition: Increased frequency of vocalisations (Johnsen et al., 2015; Green et al., 2021). Sensitivity: High. Specificity: Low. Vocalisations may also occur in cases of prolonged hunger or isolation stress.
Heart rate after separation	Definition: Increased heart rate (heart beats per minute) (Loberg et al., 2008; Stěhulová et al., 2008). Sensitivity: High. Specificity: Low. High heart rate could also result from isolation stress or heat stress.
Restlessness behaviour	Definition: Behaviours such as head‐out behaviour, movements (Flower and Weary, 2001; Stěhulová et al., 2008). Sensitivity: High. Specificity: Low. Restlessness behaviour could also result from isolation stress or prolonged hunger.