Table 1.

Metal and non-metal nanoparticles used in anti-cancer therapies.

NPs	Size/Shape of Nanoparticles	Function	Ref.
Ag	25 ± 5 nm, spherical	Hybrid nanocapsules for drug delivery containing silver nanoparticles on the surface, enabling controlled drug release under ultrasound	[82]
Ag/GO	15 nm (PXRD)	Synergistic antimicrobial effect of AgNPs-ciprofloxacin with reduced cytotoxicity and high stability	[83]
Ag	37 ± 8 nm, spherical	Stable and non-toxic drug carrier	[84]
Ag	20 ± 4 nm, spherical	Stable radionuclide carrier for radiotherapy captured by cancer cells with low toxicity to healthy cells	[85]
Ag/GO	≈20 nm, spherical	Easy to functionalize hybrid drug nanocarrier that also enables SERS bioimaging	[86]
Ag	≈120 nm, nanocages	Biocompatible nanocrystalline material for photothermal therapy	[87]
Ag	≈6 nm, nanodots	Low toxic material with high X-ray attenuation for imaging and drug for photothermal therapy	[88]
Ag/RGO	≈12 nm, spherical	Material for photothermal and photodynamic therapy	[79]
Ag	≈79 nm, spherical	Material with antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-cancer activity	[89]
Ag	38–63 nm, cubic/square	Material with anti-cancer effects	[90]
Ag	≈27 nm, spherical	Functionalized material with anti-tumour activity and enhanced biocompatibility	[91]
Ag	5–25 nm, oval and spherical	Material with antifungal and antitumour activity	[92]
Ag	≈23 nm, spherical	DDAPG drug carrier with anti-cancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, with enhanced bioactivity and biocompatibility	[93]
Ag	21–25 nm, spherical	Functionalized 5-fluorouracil drug carrier, pH-sensitive with modulated release, with antitumour and antimicrobial activity	[94]
Ag	11 nm, spherical	Drug carrier with reduced toxicity and anti-tumour effects	[95]
Ag	142 ± 33 nm, spherical	Material with anti-cancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activity with reduced toxicity	[96]
Ag	2–24 nm, spherical	Material with anti-cancer and antimicrobial activity	[97]
Ag	≈30 nm, spherical	Material with anti-cancer and antimicrobial activity	[98]
Ag	42 ± 5 nm, spherical	Functionalized anti-cancer material with low cytotoxicity against healthy cells, antimicrobial activity	[99]
Ag	≈72 nm, spherical	Functionalized drug carrier with anti-tumour activity to increase the effectiveness of the drug used	[100]
Ag	≈20 nm, spherical	Functionalized material with anti-cancer activity	[101]
Ag	50–90 nm, spherical	Functionalized material for photothermal therapy with enhanced antioxidant activity, anti-cancer activity, and increased biocompatibility, and low toxicity to healthy tissues (organs)	[102]
Ag	37 nm, spherical shape	Drug carrier in anti-cancer therapy	[103]
Ag	45 nm, spherical and oval particles	Cytotoxic activity (against Human hepatoblastoma cells (Hep G2)) and antibacterial activity	[37]
Ag-Chitosan	72 nm, oligomeric chitosan coated silver nanoparticles	Drug carrier with anti-cancer therapeutic potential	[104]
Ag	20 nm, spherical shape	Anti-cancer activity with dual inhibitory action on COX-2 and NF-jB expression	[38]
Ag-PVP	50–90 nm, spherical shape	Photothermal therapy technique for benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH)	[105]
Au	10–15 nm	Biodegradable material for photothermal therapy, embedded in liposomes	[106]
Au	5–12 nm, spherical	Low toxicity and highly selective gene carrier for cancer therapies	[107]
Au	10–20 nm, spherical	Element of a non-toxic and antioxidant antitumour composite (chemotherapeutic)	[108]
Au	<10 nm, spherical	Stable carrier possible for functionalization with organic selenium compounds, reducing cytotoxicity, and increasing selectivity and efficiency against cancer cells	[109]
Au	≈100 nm, triangular flakes	Functionalized drug carrier active in the presence of ultrasound to enhance the effectiveness of cisplatin against cancer cells resistant to the drug	[110]
Au	≈50 nm, nanoflowers	Photothermal therapy material embedded with polymyxin E (PE) with high photothermal conversion, antimicrobial activity, and low toxicity to healthy tissues	[111]
Au	≈22 nm, spherical	Drug carrier (doxorubicin), increasing the effectiveness of radiotherapy and radiochemotherapy with increased accumulation in the acidic tumour environment	[112]
Au	7 ± 4 nm, spherical	Functionalized material that induces hyperthermia under the influence of light or radiofrequency electric field with high biocompatibility and low cytotoxicity	[113]
Au	NPs encapsulated in two types of cell vesicles (~30 nm and ~4–6 nm membrane thickness)	Inducing an immune response against cancer cells via Au nanoparticles camouflaged with exocytotic vesicles derived from B16F10 cancer cells and CDs dendritic cells	[114]
Au	Spherical, 14 ± 3 nm modified with citrate; ~19 nm modified with PEG350	Photothermal agent, enhancing cytotoxic effect of DOX drug in breast cancer treatment using PTT; effect confirmed against MCF-7 cells with λ = 530 nm 3.44 W/cm2 irradiation	[115]
Au	20.5 ± 1.9 nm after modification	Photocrosslinking PEGylated and diazirine-decorated particles for enhanced PTT and photoacoustic tumour imaging, confirmed in female BALB/c mice, 2 mg/L with λ = 405 nm 1 W/cm2 irradiation	[116]
Au	12 nm before modification	Cytochrome c-modified pH-responsive photothermal agent, activity confirmed on B16F10 and MDCK-GFP cells with λ = 660 nm 14 W/cm2 irradiation	[117]
Au	Various particle shapes and sizes in the range of 7 × 26–400 nm	Particles targeting anti-cancer activity using different mechanisms in PTT and PDT with photosensitizing properties	[118]
Au	9.9–11.6 nm before modification	Photothermal agent using PBS or modified PEG for simultaneous PT/PA and PTT imaging of tumours, confirmed to work on C26 organisms with λ = 808 nm, 1 W/cm2 irradiation	[119]
Au	Different shapes and sizes of particles—an overview	Modified gold nanoparticles in anti-cancer therapy—PTT, RFA, drug transport, and modulation of angiogenesis	[120]
Au	Different shapes and sizes of particles—an overview	Modified gold nanoparticles in anti-cancer therapy—PTT, RFA	[121]
Au	1.9–74 nm after various modifications	Nanoparticles as radiosensitizers, physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms	[122]
Au	Different sizes depending on the method of obtaining	Drug carriers, contrast agent in imaging and photosensitizer in PTT, substrate in SERS imaging	[123]
Au	Different shapes and sizes of particles—an overview	Modified carriers of drugs, antibiotics, genes, proteins, molecular nanoprobes for detection and monitoring of target molecules	[124]
Au	Gold nanoparticles embedded on liposomes, 100–120 nm, spherical shape	Killing cancer cells via photothermal therapy	[125]
Au	1.8 ± 0.32 nm after modification	Increased targeting of HIV drug carriers, p-mercaptobenzoic acid modification, effect confirmed on PBMCs, HBMECs, and macrophages cells	[126]
Au	14 nm before modification	Antimicrobial agent capable of surface self-adaptation, modified with a mixture of SAMs and fast responders to pH change, effect confirmed on MRSA bacterial biofilm	[127]
Bi	105 nm after modification)	Photosensitizer, contrast and photoacoustic agent; stabilized DSPE-PEG2000 with proven activity against C6 cells (LC80 200 μg/mL with λ = 808 nm 1 W/cm2 irradiation)	[128]
Bi	~42 ± 2 nm, after modification ~50 ± 2 nm	DSPE-PEG2000-stabilized photosensitizer directed and camouflaged by CT26 cell membranes deposited on a surface with proven activity against CT26 cells (LC99 100 μg/mL with λ = 808 nm 1 W/cm2 irradiation)	[129]
Bi	40 nm, after modification 56 nm	Radiosensitizer directed and stabilized by folic acid-PEG2000-DSPE, camouflaged by RBCs cell membranes deposited on the surface with proven effect against 4T1 cells (LC80 100 μg/mL with 9 Gy X-ray irradiation)	[130]
Bi	~10 nm, after modification ~300 nm	PVP-modified radiosensitizer with attached anti-corrosive graphene oxide with proven activity against 4T1 cells (IC44 2 mg/mL under NIR λ = 808 nm irradiation, IC59 2 mg/mL under X-ray irradiation, and IC90 2 mg/mL under NIR λ = 808 nm and X-ray irradiation)	[131]
Bi	25 nm, spherical	Potential radiosensitizer, contrast agent with high biocompatibility (tested in mice)	[132]
Bi	3.6 nm, after modification	Radio- and photosensitizing agent with contrast and photoacoustic properties, stabilized by DSPE-PEG2000, directed by LyP-1 peptide with confirmed activity against 4T1 cells (IC mg/mL on NIR λ = 1064 nm irradiation, IC mg/mL on 4 Gy X-ray irradiation, and IC mg/mL on NIR λ = 1064 nm and X-ray irradiation)	[133]
Ga	8–20 nm	An anti-cancer agent based on gallium nanoparticles combined with gamma radiation. Efficacy was confirmed by a study in female mice that had solid Erlich cancer. Gallium nanoparticles were biologically synthesized using Lactobacillus helveticus cells.	[36]
Ga	8–20 nm	A therapeutic agent in the form of gallium nanoparticles combined with low levels of gamma radiation was used to treat hepatocellular carcinoma induced by dietary nitrosamine in rats. A strain of Bacillus helveticus was used to synthesize GaNPs.	[134]
Ga	5–7 nm	An agent that prevents hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) from metastasizing to the brain by inhibiting BSSP4 mRNA expression, leading to suppression of multiple tumour growth factors. The study was conducted in rats.	[46]
Ga	GaNS: 220 nm GaNR: 255 nm LMNR: 237 nm Nanospheric, rod-like structures	A therapeutic agent in the form of liquid gallium nanoparticles, characterized by variable shape (from spherical to rod-shaped). During the synthesis, liquid metal sonication was used along with HS-PEG-HS to increase the stability of the system and biosafety in the bloodstream (spherical structure- GaNS). In addition, gallium- GANR nanorods and gallium- indium- LMNR alloy nanorods were synthesized. The nanoparticles have the ability to target tumours through specific binding between HA and overexpressed CD44 receptors on breast tumour membranes.	[40]
Fe/Ga	15–20 nm	Agents with potential therapeutic properties for hard and soft tissue cancers via hyperthermia. Magnetic Fe-Ga nanoparticles were synthesized using sol-gel polycondensation reaction.	[135]
Pd	10 nm 4 to 14 nm	Human Ovarian Cancer Cells (SKOV3). Potential agent for the treatment of ovarian cancer- SKOV3 cells. NPs were synthesized by treating palladium chloride with hesperidin.	[136]
Pd	Spherical in shape, 5–20 nm	IC50 300 nM for human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) An agent with potential verpaeutic therapeutic properties, synthesized using saponin. Strong synergistic interactions have been demonstrated between PdNs, and trichostatin A (TSA) in cervical cancer cells.	[137]
Pd	30–153 flower shaped, size dependent on addiction of chitosan	The agent has been used for in vitro photothermal therapy and in vitro near-infrared photoacoustic imaging. Porous flower-shaped palladium nanoparticles were synthesized using chitosan and vitamin C.	[138]
Pd	In MV process: spherical particles, 11–33 nm	Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Effects Against Fibroblast-Like (HSkMC) 320 μg/mL and Human Lung Carcinoma (A549) Cell Lines (7.2 ± 1.7 μg/mL)	[139]
Pd	Cubic structure, an average size about 2–9 nm	Anti-cancer Activity Against MCF-7 Cell Lines	[140]
Pd	Various shapes, 3.1–6.5 nm	Reduced inherent cytotoxicity and high photothermal conversion capacity in the presence of NIR irradiation	[141]
Pt	55 nm, spherical	Photoacoustic/photothermal multimodal imaging at tumour sites	[142]
Pt/TPP	Flower shaped, 30–60 nm	Induction of cell death and G2/M-phase cell cycle arrest in human cervical cancer cells	[143]
Pt	Spherical shaped NPs with size ranges from 20 to 50 nm.	Cytoxicityactivity against MCF-7 cell line using PtNPs.	[144]
Se	Spherical shape, 25 nm,	Anti-cancer action and low toxicity to normal cells and its selectivity towards tumour cells	[145]
Sb	antimonene quantum dots coated with PEG, 2.8 nm, spherical shape	Notable NIR-induced tumour ablation ability	[146]
Sb	Sb nanopolyherdrons with PEG and 1-methyl-d-tryptophan, 65 nm, polyhedrons	A highly efficient photoacoustic-imaging-guided synergistic photothermal/immune-therapy of tumours in vivo	[147]
Sb	PEG coated antimoneny 4 nm, spherical nanosheets	Drug delivery, sensing, imaging, photothermal therapy and other cancer treatment fields	[49]
Sb	34–42 nm, spherical shape	Synergistic chemo—photothermal therapy	[148]
Sb	4 nm, spherical shape	NIR light-induced tumour ablation	[149]
Sb	Spherical particles, 1.6–2.9 nm	Infrared degradability of antimonene in tumour treatment	[66]
Sb	34–42 nm, spherical	Photosensitizer, DOX drug carrier degradable under NIR, modified with PAA, at a concentration of 200 mg/mL irradiation, and as a result of the release of the drug killed 97% of HeLa cells	[150]
Sb	2.8 nm quantum dots	PEG-modified photosensitizer; at a concentration of 200 mg/mL and the irradiation killed 90% of MCF-7 and HeLa cells)	[151]
Sb	Nanopolyhedrons	Drug/antibody carrier, photosensitizer, with photoacoustic properties modified by oleylamine, dodecylthiol, and DSPE-PEG2000 with activity confirmed against 4T1 cells LC85 62.5 µg/ml	[152]
Sb	2D and 3D nanostructures	Drug/antibody carrier, photosensitizer, with photoacoustic properties modified by 4T1 cell membrane action confirmed against 4T1 cells	[153]
Sb	2D nanostructures (237.1 ± 67.2 nm) and quantum spheres (164.3 ± 27.4)	Radiosensitizer that undergoes X-ray conversion to toxic Sb2O3, modified with PLGA with activity confirmed against A375 cells	[154]
Sb	140 nm × 4 nm; after modification, 90 nm × 6 nm	DOX drug carrier, photosensitizer with photoacoustic properties, stabilized with DSPE-PEG3000 (achieved 43.3–43.7 °C after NIR λ = 808 nm, 0.5 W/cm2 irradiation, 41.8% conversion; with confirmed effect against MCF-7 cells-upon irradiation and drug release killed 91.5% of cells; in mouse study 98% inhibition of tumour growth)	[155]
Sb	2.0 ± 0.6 nm; quantum dots, 150–200 nm after modification; spherical	Photosensitizer and drug carrier, stabilized and directed by modification of HS-PLGA-PEG-FA (obtained 40.0 °C after NIR irradiation λ = 808 nm, 1 W/cm2, 42.53% conversion; with confirmed activity against HeLa, MCF-7, HepG2, PC3 cells)	[156]
Sb	Nanoplatelets (52.52 × 20.24 × 15 nm;)	Contrast agent with photoacoustic properties and high photosensitizing potential (obtained 207.9 °C after NIR irradiation λ = 808 nm, 2 W/cm2, 42.36% conversion)	[49]
Se	130 nm	DOX drug carrier directed by transferase and stabilized by chitosan with proven activity against MCF-7, HepG2, A375 (IC50 7.1 to 11.1 μm)	[157]
Se	180 nm	RuPOP drug carrier directed folic acid with proven activity against HepG2 (IC50 0.33 ± 0.02 μm) and R-HepG2 (IC50 0.24 ± 0.02 μm)	[104]
Se	50–150 Sb nm	DOX drug carrier, with proven effect against MCF7 cells, a significant amount of cell killing was observed after 6 and 36 h at 100 μg/mL and 25 μg/mL, respectively; there was a marked improvement in effect against DOX drug alone	[19]