Skip to main content
. 2023 Mar 15;15(3):754. doi: 10.3390/v15030754

Figure 1.

Figure 1

SARS-CoV-2 soluble, glycosylated spike protein S1 subunit (S1) induces a pro-inflammatory response in human THP-1 macrophages. THP-1 cells were treated with purified, recombinant, soluble S1 protein (0.6 μg/mL, 8 nM) or vehicle for the indicated times. RT-qPCR was used to quantify the relative gene expression of IFN-β (A), IFN-γ (B), TNF-α (C), and CXCL10 (D). (E) Secretion of TNF-α was determined by ELISA assays in supernatants from THP-1 cells treated with purified, recombinant, soluble S1 proteins. Error bars denote the standard error of the mean (SEM) from 3 biologically independent experiments. * p < 0.05, determined by two-way ANOVA adjusted by Sidak’s multiple comparison test.