Table 1.
Baseline characteristics by coffee consumption in the UK Biobank.
| Exposure | Coffee Intake | Instant Coffee Intake | Filtered Coffee Intake | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N (%) | Telomere Length (z-Score), x ± SD |
p | N (%) | Telomere Length (z-score), x ± SD |
p | N (%) | Telomere Length (z-Score), x ± SD |
p | |
| Covariables included in model 1 | |||||||||
| Age | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| <50 | 110,071 (23.4) | 0.27 ± 0.98 | 24,273 (21.8) | 0.27 ± 0.97 | 12,461 (21.2) | 0.31 ± 0.98 | |||
| 50–59 | 156,395 (33.2) | 0.06 ± 0.98 | 38,181 (34.3) | 0.07 ± 0.97 | 20,843 (35.5) | 0.11 ± 0.97 | |||
| 60–69 | 202,027 (42.9) | −0.19 ± 0.98 | 48,264 (43.4) | −0.16 ± 0.98 | 25,255 (43.0) | −0.12 ± 0.98 | |||
| >69 | 2261 (0.5) | −0.35 ± 0.97 | 474 (0.4) | −0.32 ± 0.94 | 212 (0.4) | −0.33 ± 0.98 | |||
| Sex | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| female | 255,249 (54.2) | 0.09 ± 1.00 | 59,742 (53.7) | 0.11 ± 0.99 | 31,565 (53.7) | 0.15 ± 0.98 | |||
| male | 215,505 (45.8) | −0.10 ± 1.00 | 51,450 (46.3) | −0.09 ± 0.99 | 27,206 (46.3) | −0.06 ± 0.99 | |||
| Ethnicity | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| white | 427,173 (91.1) | −0.02 ± 1.00 | 103,351 (93.2) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | 53,217 (90.9) | 0.04 ± 0.99 | |||
| others | 41,974 (8.9) | 0.18 ± 1.02 | 7490 (6.8) | 0.18 ± 1.00 | 5332 (9.1) | 0.17 ± 0.97 | |||
| Body mass index, kg/m2 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| <18.5 | 2407 (0.5) | 0.13 ± 1.05 | 530 (0.5) | 0.17 ± 0.95 | 336 (0.6) | 0.19 ± 0.94 | |||
| 18.5–24.9 | 152,556 (32.5) | 0.07 ± 1.00 | 38,452 (34.7) | 0.07 ± 0.99 | 24,126 (41.1) | 0.11 ± 0.98 | |||
| 25–29.9 | 199,580 (42.6) | −0.02 ± 1.00 | 47,370 (42.7) | −0.01 ± 0.99 | 24,157 (41.2) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | |||
| >29.9 | 114,381 (24.4) | −0.05 ± 1.00 | 24,607 (22.2) | −0.03 ± 0.99 | 10,037 (17.1) | −0.01 ± 1.00 | |||
| Additional covariables included in model 2 | |||||||||
| Qualification | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| college or university degree | 152,641 (32.8) | 0.09 ± 1.00 | 43,330 (39.1) | 0.07 ± 0.99 | 34,410 (58.7) | 0.08 ± 0.98 | |||
| A/AS/NVQ/HND/HNC/other professional qualifications | 107,766 (23.1) | −0.01 ± 1.00 | 27,267 (24.6) | −0.01 ± 0.99 | 12,248 (20.9) | 0.03 ± 1.00 | |||
| O levels/GCSEs/CSEs | 125,148 (26.9) | 0.01 ± 0.99 | 12,248 (20.9) | 0.03 ± 1.00 | 9836 (16.8) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | |||
| none of the above | 80,245 (17.2) | −0.17 ± 0.99 | 10,310 (9.3) | −0.14 ± 1.00 | 2117 (3.6) | −0.14 ± 1.02 | |||
| Townsend deprivation index (percentile) | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| <25 | 117,494 (25.0) | −0.01 ± 0.99 | 27,758 (25.0) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | 27,758 (25.0) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | |||
| 25–49 | 117,591 (25.0) | −0.01 ± 1.00 | 27,769 (25.0) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | 27,769 (25.0) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | |||
| 50–75 | 117,545 (25.0) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | 27,768 (25.0) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | 27,768 (25.0) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | |||
| >75 | 117,545 (25.0) | 0.02 ± 1.01 | 27,765 (25.0) | 0.04 ± 1.00 | 27,765 (25.0) | 0.04 ± 1.00 | |||
| Total MET physical activity, minutes/week | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.091 | ||||||
| <600 | 71,452 (18.7) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 17,394 (18.6) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | 8619 (16.9) | 0.06 ± 0.99 | |||
| 600–3000 | 192,526 (50.5) | 0.02 ± 1.00 | 49,514 (52.8) | 0.03 ± 0.99 | 28,805 (56.3) | 0.06 ± 0.99 | |||
| >3000 | 117,373 (30.8) | −0.01 ± 1.00 | 26,841 (28.6) | −0.01 ± 1.00 | 13,696 (26.8) | 0.04 ± 0.98 | |||
| White blood cell count, 10⁹ cells/L (percentile) | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| <5 | 21,096 (4.6) | 0.16 ± 1.01 | 5204 (4.8) | 0.14 ± 0.99 | 2814 (4.9) | 0.17 ± 0.97 | |||
| 5–24 | 92,706 (20.3) | 0.07 ± 0.99 | 21,087 (19.5) | 0.08 ± 0.99 | 11,363 (19.9) | 0.1 ± 0.99 | |||
| 25–74 | 228,615 (50.0) | −0.01 ± 0.99 | 54,609 (50.6) | 0.01 ± 0.98 | 28,491 (49.9) | 0.04 ± 0.98 | |||
| 75–95 | 91,658 (20.1) | −0.06 ± 1.01 | 21,585 (20.0) | −0.04 ± 1.01 | 11,511 (20.2) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | |||
| >95 | 22,868 (5.0) | −0.08 ± 1.04 | 5419 (5.0) | −0.05 ± 1.01 | 2911 (5.1) | 0.02 ± 1.04 | |||
| C-reactive protein, mg/L | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| <1 | 175,766 (39.2) | 0.06 ± 1.00 | 44,634 (42.2) | 0.07 ± 0.99 | 27,497 (49.2) | 0.10 ± 0.98 | |||
| 1–3 | 170,810 (38.1) | −0.03 ± 1.00 | 39,786 (37.6) | −0.02 ± 0.99 | 19,608 (35.1) | 0.01 ± 0.99 | |||
| >3 | 101,649 (22.7) | −0.06 ± 1.01 | 21,298 (20.1) | −0.02 ± 0.99 | 8789 (15.7) | −0.01 ± 1.01 | |||
| Smoking status | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| current | 49,564 (10.6) | −0.06 ± 1.01 | 9422 (8.5) | −0.02 ± 1.01 | 3950 (6.7) | 0.02 ± 1.01 | |||
| previous | 162,837 (34.7) | −0.06 ± 1.00 | 40,079 (36.1) | −0.04 ± 0.99 | 32,949 (56.2) | 0.09 ± 0.99 | |||
| never | 256,600 (54.7) | 0.05 ± 1.00 | 61,411 (55.4) | 0.06 ± 0.99 | 32,949 (56.2) | 0.09 ± 0.99 | |||
| Alcohol intake frequency | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| daily or almost daily | 95,928 (20.4) | −0.06 ± 1.00 | 25,082 (22.6) | −0.04 ± 0.99 | 17,836 (30.4) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | |||
| three or four times a week | 108,846 (23.1) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | 28,790 (25.9) | 0.01 ± 0.99 | 17,558 (29.9) | 0.06 ± 0.98 | |||
| once or twice a week | 121,492 (25.8) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | 28,810 (25.9) | 0.04 ± 0.99 | 13,149 (22.4) | 0.09 ± 0.99 | |||
| once to three times a month | 52,410 (11.1) | 0.04 ± 0.99 | 12,318 (11.1) | 0.05 ± 0.99 | 4853 (8.3) | 0.12 ± 0.99 | |||
| special occasions only | 54,010 (11.5) | 0.03 ± 1.01 | 10,465 (9.4) | 0.06 ± 1.01 | 3223 (5.5) | 0.08 ± 1.00 | |||
| never | 37,680 (8.0) | 0.02 ± 1.02 | 5658 (5.1) | 0.01 ± 1.01 | 2110 (3.6) | 0.04 ± 1.02 | |||
| Vascular/heart problems diagnosed by doctor | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| none | 329,721 (70.2) | 0.04 ± 1.00 | 80,577 (72.6) | 0.05 ± 0.99 | 44,727 (76.2) | 0.08 ± 0.99 | |||
| heart attack | 10,866 (2.3) | −0.29 ± 1.00 | 2048 (1.8) | −0.31 ± 1.02 | 741 (1.3) | −0.26 ± 1.01 | |||
| angina | 10,604 (2.3) | −0.25 ± 0.99 | 1952 (1.8) | −0.25 ± 0.99 | 744 (1.3) | −0.19 ± 0.94 | |||
| stroke | 5768 (1.2) | −0.20 ± 1.02 | 1073 (1.0) | −0.21 ± 1.03 | 463 (0.8) | −0.12 ± 1.03 | |||
| high blood pressure | 112,761 (24.0) | −0.06 ± 0.99 | 25,384 (22.9) | −0.05 ± 0.99 | 12,022 (20.5) | −0.02 ± 0.99 | |||
| Cancer diagnosed by doctor | <0.001 | 0.082 | 0.005 | ||||||
| yes | 35,848 (7.6) | −0.05 ± 1.01 | 8386 (7.5) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | 4448 (7.6) | 0.01 ± 0.98 | |||
| no/don’t know | 434,636 (92.4) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 102,752 (92.5) | −0.03 ± 1.01 | 54,290 (92.4) | 0.06 ± 0.99 | |||
| Diabetes diagnosed by doctor | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| yes | 24,601 (5.2) | −0.16 ± 1.01 | 4885 (4.4) | −0.13 ± 1.00 | 1922 (3.3) | −0.15 ± 1.00 | |||
| no/don’t know | 445,921 (94.8) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | 106,263 (95.6) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | 56,820 (96.7) | 0.06 ± 0.99 | |||
| Additional covariables included in model 3 | |||||||||
| Oily fish intake | <0.001 | 0.027 | <0.001 | ||||||
| never | 51,360 (11.0) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 9961 (9.0) | 0.03 ± 0.98 | 3887 (6.6) | 0.10 ± 0.98 | |||
| less than once a week | 155,199 (33.2) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | 38,576 (34.8) | 0.03 ± 0.99 | 18,613 (31.7) | 0.07 ± 0.99 | |||
| once a week | 177,076 (37.8) | −0.01 ± 1.00 | 43,470 (39.2) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 24,699 (42.1) | 0.04 ± 1.00 | |||
| 2–4 times a week | 79,993 (17.1) | −0.01 ± 1.00 | 18,042 (16.3) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | 10,988 (18.7) | 0.03 ± 0.98 | |||
| >4 times a week | 4454 (1.0) | 0.03 ± 1.01 | 865 (0.8) | 0.00 ± 0.98 | 498 (0.8) | 0.01 ± 1.04 | |||
| Processed meat intake | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| never | 43,644 (9.3) | 0.09 ± 1.00 | 8896 (8.0) | 0.13 ± 1.00 | 8896 (8.0) | 0.13 ± 1.00 | |||
| less than once a week | 142,958 (30.4) | 0.03 ± 1.00 | 34,836 (31.4) | 0.03 ± 0.99 | 34,836 (31.4) | 0.03 ± 0.99 | |||
| once a week | 137,232 (29.2) | −0.02 ± 1.00 | 32,351 (29.1) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | 32,351 (29.1) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | |||
| 2–4 times a week | 127,300 (27.1) | −0.04 ± 1.00 | 30,614 (27.6) | −0.02 ± 0.99 | 30,614 (27.6) | −0.02 ± 0.99 | |||
| >4 times a week | 18,634 (4.0) | −0.05 ± 1.00 | 4394 (4.0) | −0.02 ± 0.99 | 4394 (4.0) | −0.02 ± 0.99 | |||
| Beef intake | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| never | 51,841 (11.1) | 0.09 ± 1.00 | 10,305 (9.3) | 0.12 ± 0.99 | 6939 (11.8) | 0.15 ± 0.97 | |||
| less than once a week | 213,574 (45.6) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 53,884 (48.6) | 0.01 ± 0.99 | 28,430 (48.4) | 0.05 ± 0.99 | |||
| once a week | 149,237 (31.8) | −0.02 ± 1.00 | 35,002 (31.5) | 0.01 ± 0.99 | 17,738 (30.2) | 0.04 ± 0.98 | |||
| 2–4 times a week | 52,956 (11.3) | −0.03 ± 1.01 | 11,630 (10.5) | −0.01 ± 1.01 | 5543 (9.4) | 0.03 ± 1.01 | |||
| >4 times a week | 1192 (0.3) | 0.06 ± 1.07 | 140 (0.1) | 0.07 ± 0.99 | 38 (0.1) | 0.12 ± 1.09 | |||
| Mutton/lamb intake + | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| never | 83,190 (17.8) | 0.05 ± 1.00 | 16,912 (15.3) | 0.08 ± 0.98 | 8839 (15.1) | 0.13 ± 0.97 | |||
| less than once a week | 265,065 (56.7) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 67,310 (60.7) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | 34,599 (59.0) | 0.05 ± 0.99 | |||
| once a week | 105,231 (22.5) | −0.04 ± 1.00 | 23,934 (21.6) | −0.02 ± 0.99 | 13,686 (23.3) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | |||
| 2–4 times a week | 13,739 (2.9) | −0.01 ± 1.02 | 2652 (2.4) | −0.03 ± 1.01 | 1527 (2.6) | −0.01 ± 1.04 | |||
| >4 times a week | 500 (0.1) | 0.16 ± 1.02 | 33 (0.0) | 0.31 ± 0.84 | 3 (0.0) | 0.83 ± 0.79 | |||
| Pork intake | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| never | 80,560 (17.2) | 0.07 ± 1.00 | 15,136 (13.7) | 0.09 ± 0.99 | 8982 (15.3) | 0.14 ± 0.98 | |||
| less than once a week | 266,181 (56.9) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 66,580 (60.0) | 0.01 ± 0.99 | 35,572 (60.6) | 0.04 ± 0.99 | |||
| once a week | 104,452 (22.3) | −0.04 ± 1.00 | 25,448 (23.0) | −0.02 ± 0.99 | 12,391 (21.1) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | |||
| 2–4 times a week | 16,058 (3.4) | 0.00 ± 1.01 | 3629 (3.3) | −0.02 ± 1.00 | 1678 (2.9) | 0.04 ± 0.99 | |||
| >4 times a week | 657 (0.1) | 0.09 ± 0.95 | 91 (0.1) | −0.01 ± 0.92 | 32 (0.1) | 0.21 ± 0.89 | |||
| Cooked vegetable intake, tablespoons/day | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.248 | ||||||
| 0 | 13,909 (3.0) | −0.02 ± 1.01 | 2375 (2.1) | 0.02 ± 1.00 | 766 (1.3) | 0.03 ± 1.02 | |||
| <2 | 71,064 (15.3) | 0.03 ± 1.00 | 16,280 (14.7) | 0.04 ± 0.98 | 7677 (13.1) | 0.07 ± 0.98 | |||
| 2–3 | 281,185 (60.5) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 69,530 (62.9) | 0.01 ± 0.99 | 37,264 (63.6) | 0.05 ± 1.00 | |||
| 4–5 | 75,667 (16.3) | −0.02 ± 1.00 | 17,403 (15.7) | −0.01 ± 1.00 | 10,059 (17.2) | 0.04 ± 0.98 | |||
| 6+ | 23,156 (5.0) | 0.00 ± 1.01 | 4913 (4.4) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | 2812 (4.8) | 0.06 ± 0.99 | |||
| Salad/raw vegetable intake, tablespoons/day | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | ||||||
| 0 | 45,332 (9.8) | −0.06 ± 1.01 | 9183 (8.3) | −0.03 ± 1 | 3076 (5.3) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | |||
| (0, 1] | 161,209 (34.7) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 40,654 (36.8) | 0.01 ± 0.99 | 20,377 (34.8) | 0.05 ± 0.98 | |||
| (1, 3] | 178,476 (38.4) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | 42,626 (38.6) | 0.02 ± 0.98 | 24,330 (41.6) | 0.05 ± 0.99 | |||
| (3, 5] | 56,054 (12.1) | 0.02 ± 1.01 | 12,716 (11.5) | 0.04 ± 1.01 | 7446 (12.7) | 0.07 ± 1.00 | |||
| >5 | 23,612 (5.1) | 0.06 ± 1.00 | 5215 (4.7) | 0.05 ± 1 | 3301 (5.6) | 0.10 ± 0.98 | |||
| Fresh fruit intake, tablespoons/day | <0.001 | 0.007 | 0.215 | ||||||
| 0 | 28,801 (6.1) | −0.04 ± 1.02 | 5517 (5.0) | −0.01 ± 0.99 | 1836 (3.1) | 0.03 ± 0.99 | |||
| (0, 1] | 137,737 (29.4) | −0.01 ± 1.00 | 32,592 (29.4) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | 15,904 (27.1) | 0.05 ± 0.99 | |||
| (1, 3] | 226,434 (48.3) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | 55,815 (50.3) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | 30,665 (52.2) | 0.05 ± 0.99 | |||
| (3, 5] | 63,066 (13.5) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | 14,417 (13.0) | 0.03 ± 1.00 | 8658 (14.8) | 0.07 ± 1.00 | |||
| >5 | 12,834 (2.7) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | 2642 (2.4) | 0.01 ± 1.00 | 1632 (2.8) | 0.04 ± 0.97 | |||
| Dried fruit intake, tablespoons/day | <0.001 | 0.690 | <0.001 | ||||||
| 0 | 251,959 (54.1) | −0.02 ± 1.00 | 56,075 (50.8) | 0.00 ± 0.99 | 23,912 (40.9) | 0.03 ± 0.99 | |||
| (0, 1] | 134,229 (28.8) | 0.03 ± 0.99 | 35,389 (32.1) | 0.04 ± 0.99 | 21,833 (37.4) | 0.07 ± 0.98 | |||
| (1, 3] | 54,085 (11.6) | 0.02 ± 1.00 | 13,063 (11.8) | 0.02 ± 1.00 | 8737 (15.0) | 0.06 ± 0.99 | |||
| (3, 5] | 15,951 (3.4) | 0.01 ± 1.01 | 3723 (3.4) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 2607 (4.5) | 0.08 ± 0.99 | |||
| >5 | 9281 (2.0) | 0.00 ± 1.01 | 2163 (2.0) | 0.02 ± 0.99 | 1350 (2.3) | 0.06 ± 1.02 | |||
| Coffee consumption, cup | <0.001 | 0.045 | 0.490 | ||||||
| (0, 1] | 232,910 (49.5) | 0.02 ± 1.00 | 34,325 (30.9) | 0.03 ± 0.99 | 26,280 (44.7) | 0.05 ± 0.99 | |||
| (1, 3] | 145,997 (31.0) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 56,310 (50.6) | 0.01 ± 0.99 | 29,079 (49.5) | 0.06 ± 0.99 | |||
| 3+ | 91,847 (19.5) | −0.04 ± 1.00 | 20,557 (18.5) | 0.00 ± 1.00 | 3412 (5.8) | 0.04 ± 1.00 | |||
+: 2–4 times a week and >4 times a week were combined in the filtered coffee analysis. Abbreviations: A, Advanced; AS, Advanced Subsidiary; CSE, Certificate of Secondary Education; GCSE, General Certificate of Secondary Education; O, Ordinary; HNC, Higher National Certificate; HND, Higher National Diploma; NVQ, National Vocational Qualification; SD, standard deviation.