Table 1.
Use of different chitosan formulations for bone, cartilage, and dental tissue regeneration.
| Tissue | Formulation | Model | Effects | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bone | Composite scaffold of chitosan and magnesium oxide nanoparticle-coated eggshell particles loaded with BMP2 | Rat model of calvarial bone defects | Enhanced new osseous tissue formation, increased bone defect closure | [39] |
| Composite biomimetic scaffolds made of chitosan and gelatin and loaded with dental pulp cells | Mouse model of immunodeficiency | Increased mineralization, enhanced formation of the new bone | [40] | |
| Composite scaffolds made of chitosan and gelatin | Mouse model of femur orthotopic implantation | Enhanced formation of new extracellular matrix | [41] | |
| Injectable hydrogel made of glycol chitosan and oxidized hyaluronic acid and loaded with graphene oxide | Rat model of calvarial bone defects | Enhanced closure of bone defects | [42] | |
| Thermosensitive hydrogel/nanoparticle system made of chitosan and glycerol phosphate and loaded with vancomycin | Rabbit model of chronic osteomyelitis | Reduced bone inflammation, enhanced bone repair | [43] | |
| In situ forming hydrogel consisting of methacrylated glycol chitosan and montmorillonite | Mouse model of calvarial bone defects | Increased new osteoid bone formation | [45] | |
| Electrospun nanofiber membranes made of Triethylamine/tert-butyloxycarbonyl or butyryl-anhydride modified chitosan | Rat model of calvarial bone defects | Enhanced formation of new bone which appeared almost identical to a natural one | [50] | |
| Electrospun nanofiber membrane made of collagen and chitosan | Rat model of cranial bone injury | Enhanced healing of the osseous tissue | [51] | |
| Cartilage | 1.5% Ethylene glycol chitosan/4% Dibenzaldehyde-functionalized-polyethylene glycol hydrogel | Rat model of knee joint articular cartilage injury | Improved cell proliferation, thicker layer of regenerated tissue that fused well with adjacent cartilage, differentiation of stem cells into neonatal chondrocytes similar in morphology to hyaline chondrocytes | [57] |
| Multilayer scaffold of chitosan hydrogel and polycaprolactone mat conjugated with kartogenin | Human adipose-derived stem cells | Chondrogenic differentiation of SCs, increased expression of SOX9, COLL2, and ACAN | [64] | |
| Silanised hydroxypropymethyl cellulose and silanised chitosan hydrogel | Canine model of osteochondral defect | Improved osteochondral regeneration in load-bearing defects | [58] | |
| Chitosan-based hydrogel and mesoporous SiO2 nanoparticles loaded with anhydroicaritin | Rabbit model of cylindrical cartilage defect in trochlear groove | Increased extracellular matrix production, improved cartilage regeneration | [66] | |
| Multi-layered chitosan-gelatin scaffold | Rabbit model of bilateral osteochondral defects | Improved hyaline cartilage regeneration | [60] | |
| Chitosan hydrogel/3D-printed poly (ε-caprolactone) hybrid that recruited tetrahedral framework nucleic acid | Rabbit model of knee defects | Improved cartilage regeneration, impeded the development of osteoarthritis | [63] | |
| Alginate-chitosan hydrogels | Rat model of physeal injury | Decreased bony bar formation, increased chondrogenic differentiation in fast-degrading scaffold, increased bony bar formation in slow-degrading scaffold | [70] | |
| Chitosan/mesoporous silica nanoparticles microspheres loaded with kartogenin and platelet-derived growth factor BB | Rabbit model of focal cartilage defects | Improved chondrogenic differentiation in vitro, improved cartilage regeneration in vivo | [65] | |
| Chitosan, polyvinyl alcohol, and citric acid hydrogel scaffold | Rat model of osteochondral defects in femoral groove | High biocompatibility of the scaffold that mimicked subchondral lamellar bone structure, almost complete in situ cartilage regeneration | [59] | |
| Cross-linked thiolated chitosan and carboxymethyl cellulose hydrogel loaded with TGF-β1 | Rat model of full-thickness cartilage defects in knees | Regenerated cartilage tissue, homogeneous cell morphology, even cell distribution | [67] | |
| Platelet-rich plasma and sodium alginate-based hydrogel embedded in the porous 3D chitosan, chondroitin sulfate, and silk fibroin scaffold | Rabbit model of full-thickness articular cartilage defect | Increased hyaline cartilage ECM deposition, improved integration of regenerated tissue with native cartilage | [68] | |
| γ-Poly- glutamic acid, carboxymethyl chitosan, and bacterial cellulose bilayer scaffold with a dense cartilage layer containing Mg2+ and a porous osteogenic layer containing nano-hydroxyapatite and Cu2+ | Rabbit model of osteochondral defects in knee joints | Improved cartilage and subchondral bone regeneration | [62] | |
| Bilayer chitosan scaffold with cellulose nanoparticles in cartilage-facing layer and hydroxyapatite in bone-facing layer | Rabbit model of articular cartilage defects in trochlear groove | Improved cartilage regeneration, improved subchondral bone integrity | [61] | |
| Alginate-chitosan polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) hydrogel | Rat model of growth plate injury | Improved cartilage regeneration, not impeded bony bar formation | [69] | |
| Dental | Simvastatin (SV)–releasing chitosan-calcium-hydroxide (CH-Ca) scaffold | Rat model of calvarial defects | Improved mineralization in vivo | [80] |
| Injectable chitosan hydrogel scaffold | Rodent model of orthotopic dental pulp regeneration | Enhanced dental pulp regeneration | [73] | |
| Injectable oxidized alginate-carboxymethyl-chitosan hydrogel | Rat incisor HAT-7 dental epithelial cell line | Increased HAT-7 cell survival and differentiation potential | [86] | |
| 2.5% Chitosan solution | Human sound molar teeth | Improved bond strength in demineralized dentin | [82] |