Figure 2.

Oxidative stress due to the production of reactive oxygen species may lead to neurodegeneration. Activated microglia and reactive astrocyte generate ROS, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS), which may cause further damage. Binding of TNF-α to its receptor can lead to the activation of many signaling pathways, which may cause apoptosis induction and inflammation. On the other hand, phytochemicals have great ability to target apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress, as depicted in the figure.