Table 2.

In vitro and in vivo effects of various phytochemicals against neurodegenerative disorders.

Phytocompound	Structure	Plant	Study	Molecular Mechanism	Ref.
β-caryophyllene		Cannabis sativa	In vivo (Swiss albino mice)	Neuroprotection by abrogating apoptosis through increased expression of bcl-2 and TrkB and suppression of bax and caspase-3	[55]
Sinensetin		Citrus sinensis	In vitro (SH-SY5Y cell-line)	In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiapoptotic activities against amyloid beta (Aβ25–35)-induced neurotoxicity	[56]
Stigmasterol		Calotropis gigantean	In vitro (SH-SY5Y cell-line)	Hampered apoptosis induction by suppressing ROS production and upregulated bcl-2 and FoX3a and catalase	[57]
Rosmarinic acid and ursolic acid		Clinopodium revolutum	In vivo (BALB/c mice)	Improves spatial and recognition memory	[63]
Gastrodin		Gastrodia elata	In vivo (rats)	Prevented apoptosis induction by down-regulation of bax and alleviated autophagy by inhibiting beclin-1 and LC3-II	[64]
Quercetin		Citrus plants	In vivo (mice)	Inhibited cell death and degeneration by down-regulation of IL-6 and TNF-α	[66]
Asiaticoside		Centella asiatica	In vivo (Sprague-Dawley rats)	Elevated beclin-1 expression and decreased mTOR phosphorylation	[68]
Rosiridin		Rhodiola rosea	In vivo (Wistar rats)	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic	[69]
Rehmannioside A		Glutinous rehmannia	In vivo (Sprague-Dawley rats)	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic	[71]
Tilianin		Dracocephalum moldavica	In vivo (Sprague-Dawley rats)	Anti-neurodegenerative, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic	[73]
Kaempferol		Camellia sinensis	In vivo (Wistar rats)	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic	[74]
Marinoid J		Morinda lucida	In vivo (Sprague-Dawley rats)	Reducing MDA level and NO activity	[75]
Morin		Moraceae family	In vivo (Sprague-Dawley rats)	Neuroprotection by antioxidation, anti-aggregation, and anti-inflammatory mechanism	[76]
Glycyrrhizic acid		Glycyrrhiza glabra	In vivo (Sprague-Dawley rats)	Antioxidant activity by inhibition of ROS production and cyt-c activity	[79]
Tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol		Olea europaea	In vivo (APP/PS1 mice)	Anti-AβO aggregation and inhibition of caspase-3 activation	[80]
Hydroxytyrosol		Olea europaea	In vivo (APP/PS1 mice)	Reverse the deregulation of JAK2/STAT3, PI3K/Akt, ERK-MAPK, and JNK-p38 signalings	[81]
Honokiol		Magnolia officinalis	In vivo (mice)	Suppress apoptosis and neuronal damage in CA1 region of hippocampus and inhibit ROS production through attenuation of NF-κB signaling pathway	[82]
Ferrulic acid		Commelinid plants	In vivo (mice)	Anti-AβO, diminished cognitive impairment and exerted antioxidant effects by activating Nrf2	[83,84]
Ferrulic acid		-	In vivo (Sprague-Dawley rats)	Antioxidant and neuroprotection against Aβ1–42-induced neurotoxicity	[85,86]
Gastrodin		-	In vivo (Sprague-Dawley rats)	Suppresses deposition of Aβ1–40 and Aβ1–42 plaques in plasma and hippocampus of 2-VO rats by inhibiting phosphorylation of tau and amyloid β	[87]
Naringenin		Citrus plants	In vitro (Neuro2a cells) In vivo (mice)	Neuroprotection against Aβ1–42 evoked neurotoxicity by restoring AMPK level	[88]
Pocahemiketone A	-	Pogostemon cablin	In vitro (SH-SY5Y cell line)	Targets NLRP3-dependent pyroptosis and oxidative stress	[89]
Myricetin		Vitis vivifera	In vitro (SH-SY5Y cell line) and in vivo (mice)	Anti-apoptotic and anti-AChE	[90]
Sulforaphane		Cruciferae family	In vivo (C57BL/6 mice)	Neuroprotection	[91]
Procyanidin B3		Elaeagnus glabra f. oxyphylla	In vitro	Anti-Aβ aggregation effects	[92]
Procyanidin B4		Elaeagnus glabra f. oxyphylla	In vitro	Anti-Aβ aggregation effects	[92]
Helichrysoside		Elaeagnus glabra f. oxyphylla	In vitro	Anti-Aβ aggregation effects	[92]
Rosmarinic acid		Salvia fruticosa	In vitro (SH-SY5Y cell-line)	Neuroprotection against Aβ1–42 induced neurotoxicity by down-regulating GSK3β and β-secretase	[93]
Coumestrol		Glycine max	In vitro	Anti-Aβ aggregation and selective inhibition of monoamine oxidase activation	[96]
Ginsenoside F1		Aralia nudicaulis	In vivo (APPswe/PSEN1dE9 double-transgenic mice) and In vitro (Neuro2a and SH-SY5Y cell lines)	Anti-Aβ aggregation	[97]
β-caryophyllene		-	In vitro (NSC-34 cells)	Antioxidant and anti-apoptotic activities by inhibiting Aβ aggregation	[100]
α-bisabolol		Gochnatia polymorpha	In vitro (NSC-34 cells)	Antioxidant and anti-apoptotic activities by inhibiting Aβ aggregation	[100]
Curcumin		Curcuma longa	In vitro (SH-SY5Y cell-line)	Antioxidant activity by inhibited ROS generation	[102]
Resveratrol		Vaccinium species	In vitro (SH-SY5Y cell-line)	Antioxidant activity by inhibited ROS generation	[102]