Table 1.

Biodegradable materials used for microcarrier fabrication and applied for stem cell manufacturing, tissue engineering, and drug delivery applications.

Biodegradable Materials	Fabrication Technique	Microcarrier Characteristics	Cell Type and Use Case	Reference
Cell expansion for therapy
PLGA + porcine gelatin coating	Emulsification of gelatin in PLGA/dichloromethane solution, followed by an emulsion-solvent evaporation method (25)	Porous 360 cm2/g d50 = 166 µm	Human adipose stem cells	[34]
PLGA + bovine gelatin or PLL coating	Single-emulsion solvent evaporation method followed by lyophilization	Porous d = 165–260 µm	Human umbilical vein endothelial cells	[74]
Gelatin	Droplet microfluidics (gelatin solution + fluorocarbon oil), followed by solidification in ice box	Non-porous d = 55–180 µm	Human mesenchymal stem cells	[48]
	Cross-linking commercial gelatin beads (CultiSpher G) using 1,2-bis(2-isocyanatoethyl) disulfide	Porous (pore size: 5–15 µm) d = 130–380 µm (hydrated)	Human mesenchymal stem cells	[72]
PEG/alginate + chitosan coating	Emulsification of sodium alginate and PEG (water phase) and Tween80/peanut oil (oil phase) peanut oil (oil phase)	Porous (pore size: 20–200 µm) d = 700–1900 µm	Human umbilical cord blood mesenchymal stem cells	[38]
Poly-e-caprolactone (PCL) + poly-l-lysine or fibronectin coating	Droplet microfluidics	Non-porous d = 150–170 µm	Stem cell expansion (WJ-MSC, hESCs) Tissue engineering (in vivo osteogenic differentiation)	[30,77,78,79]
Chitosan	Micro-emulsification of chitosan solution in oil phase followed by low-temperature thermally induced phase separation technique	Porous (pore size: 20–50 µm) d = 150 µm	Cell expansion (human fetal hepatocytes)	[80,81]
Zein	Zein ground in glycerin at 120 °C, 5 min, followed by the removal of glycerin by suction filtration. Finally, particles are repeatedly washed with pure water	Low porosity d = 150–230 µm 350 cm2/g 1.045 g/cm3	Cell expansion (vero cells)	[82]
Cell expansion for tissue engineering
PLGA/hydroxyapatite + incorporated graphene	Emulsion-solvent evaporation, followed by surface immobilization of BMP-2	Non-porous d50 = 520 µm	Osteogenesis	[46,83]
PLGA + poly-l-lysine coating	Emulsion-solvent evaporation method, followed by surface immobilization of BMP-7 and ponericin G1	Non-porous d50 = 560 µm	Osteogenesis	[83]
Poly-lactic acid (PLA) + human recombinant collagen type I coating	Emulsion/solvent (ethyl-lactate) evaporation technique	Non-porous d = 82 ± 23 µm	Rat bone marrow MSCs	[32]
Cellulose/chitosan (cross-linked)	Water phase consisting of cellulose and chitosan solution emulsified into microspheres in liquid paraffin (oil phase) under stirring, followed by phase separation through liquid nitrogen quenching and petroleum ether	Porous (pore size: 30–60 µm) d = 450 um	Bone marrow derived MSCs for cartilage regeneration	[72]
Drug delivery
Tofu/soybean protein	Capillary microfluidic (emulsification) device, followed by thorough ethyl alcohol wash to get rid of soybean oil from the bead’s surface	Porous d = 640–740 µm	Drug delivery	[61]
Pectin	Electrospraying pectin solution into solution of cross-linking mixture (CaCl2/oligochitosan), followed by rinsing with DI water	Porous d = 150–600 µm	Drug delivery	[47]