α	alpha
β	beta
γ	gamma
µM	micromolar
Cmax	maximum concentration
dL	deciliter
g	gram
Kg	kilogram
L	liter
mcg	microgram
mg	milligram
mL	milliliter
mm2	square millimeter
n	number
ng	nanogram
nMol	nanomolar
T 1/2	half-life
5α-DHT	5alpha-dihydrotestosterone
5RI	5alpha-reductase inhibitor
ADAM	androgen deficiency in aging males
AKT	serine/threonine protein kinase
AMS	aging male symptoms
AP1	activator protein 1
AR	androgen receptor
AUAss	American Urologic Association symptom score
B3	niacin
Bax	B-cell lymphoma-associated X
Bcl-2	B cell lymphoma-2
BMI	body mass index
BMP	bone morphogenetic protein
BST	beta-sitosterol
BPH	benign prostatic hyperplasia
C19	19 carbons
CAM	complementary alternative medicine
CAT	catalase
CCNE1	G1/S-specific cyclin-E1
CDC	center for disease control and prevention
CLL	chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2
COVID	coronavirus disease 2019
COX-2	cyclooxygenase-2
Cu2+	copper (II) cation
CYP	cytochrome P450
DNA	deoxyribonucleic acid
DU245	cell line from human prostate cells
EC	epicatechin
ECG	epicatechin gallate
EGC	epigallocatechin
EGCG	epigallocatechin gallate
ER	estrogen receptor
ERRγ	estrogen-related receptor gamma
ERK	extracellular signal-regulated kinases
FDA	Federal Drug Administration USA
Fe3+	ferric ion
FGF	fibroblast growth factor
FOXM1	forkhead box protein M 1
FT3	free triiodothyronine
FT4	free thyroxine
GABA	gamma-aminobutyric acid
GAL	galanin
GF	growth factor
GH	growth hormone
GI	gastrointestinal
GPR30	G protein-coupled receptor 30
GPER	G protein-coupled estrogen receptor
GRAS	generally recognized as safe
HDL	high density lipoprotein (cholesterol)
HDS	herbal dietary supplement
HIFα	hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha
HMP	human microbiome project (NIH)
HO1	hemeoxygenase-1
HS	health survey
HSE	hexanic S. repens (saw palmetto) extract
IC50	half maximal inhibitory concentration
IGF-1	insulin-like growth factor 1
IGF1R	insulin-like growth factor receptor
IGFBP	insulin-like growth factor binding protein
IIEF	international index of erectile function
IL	interleukin
INF	interferon
IFNγ	interferon-gamma
IR	insulin receptor
IPSS	international prostate symptom score
JAK	janus kinases
JUK	c-jun n-terminal kinase
LNCap	metastatic lymph node lesion of human prostate cancer (cell line)
LUTS	lower urinary tract symptoms
MAPK	mitogen activated protein kinase
MCP1	monocyte chemoattractant protein
MCM	mini-chromosome maintenance
MDA	malodialdehyde
MetabS	metabolic syndrome
MMP	matrix metalloproteinase
MVD	micro-vessel density
NFkβ	nuclear factor Kappa B
NGS	next-generation sequencing
NIH	National Institutes of Health USA
iNOS	inducible nitric oxide synthase
Nrf2	nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2
NO	nitric oxide
P53	tumor protein
PI3K	phosphoinositide 3-kinases
PSA	prostate-specific antigen
PSE	pumpkin seed extract
PVR	post-void residual urinary volume
P38	mitogen-activated protein kinases
PCNA	proliferating cell nuclear antigen
PBX	prostate histology index
QOL	quality of life
Qmax	peak urinary flow rate
RAF	rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma- kinases
RNA	ribonucleic acid
ROS	reactive oxygen species
RTKN2	rhotekin-2
SERM	selective estrogen receptor modulator
SHBG	sex hormone binding globulin
Smad	family- structurally similar proteins, signal transducers for receptors of TGF-B
SOD	superoxide dismutase
SPE	saw palmetto extract
SPO	conventional saw palmetto
STAT	signal transducer and activator of transcription proteins
TGFβ	transforming growth factor beta
TH	thyroid hormone
TR	thyroid receptor
TRAMP	transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate
TRE	thyroid hormone response element
TSH	thyroid stimulating hormone
TNF-α	tumor necrosis factor alpha
TTK	dual specific protein kinase TTK
TURP	transurethral resection of the prostate
US	United States
VCAM-1	vascular cell adhesion molecule 1
VEGF	vascular endothelial growth factor
VISPO	enriched saw palmetto
WS PRO	herbal prostate supplement