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. 2023 Mar 29;615(7954):874–883. doi: 10.1038/s41586-023-05772-8

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a,b, Change in the urban–rural difference in age-standardized mean height in relation to the change in age-standardized mean rural height in girls (a) and boys (b). Each solid arrow in lighter shade shows one country beginning in 1990 and ending in 2020. The dashed arrows in darker shade show the regional averages, calculated as the unweighted arithmetic mean of the values for all countries in each region along the horizontal and vertical axes. For the urban–rural difference, a positive number shows a higher urban mean height and a negative number shows higher rural mean height. See Extended Data Fig. 2 for urban–rural differences in age-standardized mean height and their change over time shown as maps, together with uncertainties in the estimates. See Supplementary Fig. 4a for results at ages 5, 10, 15 and 19 years. We did not estimate the difference between rural and urban height for countries classified as entirely urban (Bermuda, Kuwait, Nauru and Singapore) or entirely rural (Tokelau).