Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of liver cancer progression and associated N-glycan type changes.

Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) is the most widely used clinical liver cancer staging system, which divides liver cancer into three stages, early (0/A), intermediate (B), and advanced (C/D), mainly based on the patient’s tumor status and liver function. N-glycan chains can participate in cell recognition, signal transduction, immune responses, and other life activities. Compared with normal cells, tumor cells, such as HCC cells, often exhibit abnormal changes in N-glycan conformation, such as abnormal branching chains and bisecting structures and altered levels of fucosylation and sialylation.