Table 1.

Effect of probiotic supplementation on the health status of individuals with ASD.

Probiotics	Species	Dose and duration	Effects	References
L. plantarum WCSF1	Children with ASD, 4–16 years old	4.5 × 1010 CFU per capsule per day for 3 weeks during the 12 weeks study duration	Improve behavioral scores and the stool consistency, increase Enterococci and Lactobacilli group, decreased Clostridium cluster XIVa	Parracho et al. (2010)
Any type of probiotic	Children with ASD, 2.5–18 years old	Daily usage (33%)	Lower levels of total SCFAs; Marginally elevate the level of Lactobacillus	Adams et al. (2011)
L. acidophilus Rosell-11	Autistic children, 4–10 years old	5 × 109 CFU per gram twice a day for 2 months	Decrease D-arabinitol and D-arabinitol/L-arabinitol ration in urine	Kałużna-Czaplińska and Błaszczyk (2012)
L. delbruecki, B. longum		1010 CFU per capsule,3 times a day for 6 months	Decrease the ATEC score, improve speech/language communication, sociability, sensory cognitive awareness, and health/physical behavior	West et al. (2013)
3 Lactobacillus strains, 2 Bifidobacterium strains, and a Streptococcus strain (60:25:15 ratio)	Children with ASD, 2–9 years old	3 capsules per day (1 capsule thrice a day) for 4 months	Normalize Bacteroidetes/Fircumutes ratio, increase Bifidobacterium, and reduce Desulfovibrio spp. and TNF-α level in feces	Tomova et al. (2015)
L. delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus, L. acidophilus, B. breve, B. longum, B. infantis, L. paracasei, L. plantarum, S. thermophiles	Children with ASD, 12 years old	5 months of treatment period (4 weeks of initial treatment +4 months of follow up treatment);10 months of follow up period	Improve autistic core symptoms and abdominal symptoms	Grossi et al. (2016)
Saccharomyces boulardii	A 16-year-old boy with Autism	3 × 109 CFU per capsule, initiated at 6 capsules daily (2 at breakfast, 2 at lunch, 1 at dinner, and 1 at bedtime), 12 capsules daily after 1 weeks, and 24 capsules after 3 months	Reduce obsessive compulsive disorder and self-injurious behavior	Kobliner et al. (2018)
B. longum, L. rhamnosus, L. acidophilus	Autistic children, age from 5–9 years old	1 × 108 CFU per gram, 5 g per day for 3 months	Decrease severity of the ASD and GI symptoms; Increase abundances of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus	Shaaban et al. (2018)
L. rhamnosus, L. paracasei and B. longum	Autistic children aged between 9–12 years old	2 × 1010 CFU, once daily for 6 weeks	Improve autistic symptoms (assessed by ATEC)	Tharawadeephimuk et al. (2019)
6 bacteria (the strain was not shown)	Children with ASD, age from 3–8 years old	Each bacteria was 1 × 109 CFU/gram, 6 g per day, in combination with applied behavior analysis training for 4 weeks.	Alleviate the autism symptom (assessed by ATEC scores); Improve the GI symptom (assessed by a GI questionnaire)	Niu et al. (2019)
S. thermophilus, B. breve, B. longum, B. infantis, L. acidophilus, L. plantarum, L. paracasei, L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus	Children with ASD, age range from 18–72 months	4.5 × 1011 bacteria each packet, 2 packets/day in the first month and 1packet/day in the following 5 months	Decline the ADOS scores in ASD children without GI symptoms; Improve GI symptoms, adaptive functioning, and sensory profiles in ASD children with GI symptoms;	Santocchi et al. (2020)
L. plantarum PS128	Autistic children and adolescents aged 45–127 months	3 × 1010 CFUs and 6 × 1010 CFUs of the probiotic if children weight was less than 30 kg and a higher weight, respectively.	Improve the Clinical Global Impression (CGI) scores	Mensi et al. (2021)
L. plantarum PS128	Individuals with ASD aged 3–20 years	Combination therapy of daily 2 capsules (6 × 1010 CFUs) for 28 weeks and oxytocin starting on week 16	Improve social and behavioral measurements, the ABC total score, ABC stereotyped behavior sub-score, and SRS cognition sub-score in a trend; Significantly improve Clinical Global Impression; enrich beneficial bacteria (Blautia, Barnesiella, ChristensenellaceaeR7, and Ruminococcaceae UCG-002) in the gut; decrease IL-1β in serum	Kong et al. (2021)
S. thermophilus, B. breve, B. longum, B. infantis, L. acidophilus, L. plantarum, L. paracasei, and L. delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus	Children aged 18–72 months diagnosed with ASD	A commercial probiotics formulation (the number of bacteria was not shown)	Decrease the power in frontopolar regions in β and γ bands, increase coherence in the same bands, and shift the frontal asymmetry	Billeci et al. (2022)
Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp.	Children with ASD aged 2–5 years	108 bacteria/g, 10 grams daily for 3 months	Significantly increase Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. in the stool; improve autism scale, sleep disturbances, communication to speak, social networking, and hyperactivity; reducing GI symptoms	Meguid et al. (2022)