Table 1.
Overview of 44 studies included in this review.
| Author, Year | Objectives | Participants | Prosthesis Components | Kinematic Parameters | Assessment of Symmetry |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Astrom and Stenstrom, 2004 | Investigate effects of using a polyurethane liner on gait and socket comfort | 7 TT (4M 3F); Vascular (4), Nonvascular (3); Age (mean 46, range 23–71 years) | Prescribed silicone liners: Iceross(5), EVA(2); polyurethane liner used for study; Feet: Conventional (5), Flex(2) | Spatiotemporal: WS, StepL, StepT, SLS; Joint angles: Knee ROM during step period, Knee ROM at LR, Knee varus/valgus during stance |
((I-P)/ (.5*(I+P)) *100 |
| 2. Bai et al., 2017 | Kinematic and biomimetic assessment of a hydraulic ankle/foot (Echelon) compared with a fixed prosthetic ankle/foot (Esprit) | 5 TF (all M); Age (range 27–65 years): 12 Controls (5M 7F); Age (mean 26 SD 2 years) |
Knee: KX06(2), Linx(2), IP(1); Feet: Echelon VT(1), Elan(2), Linx(2); fitted with Echelon (hydraulic) and Esprit (fixed) for study | Spatiotemporal: WS, StepL, StanceT, StrideL; Joint angles: Ankle PF peak, Ankle DF peak, Ankle MS Eversion |
Statistical comparison |
| 3. Bateni and Olney, 2002 | Identify kinematic characteristics of gait in TT and compare results to other studies | 5 TT (all M); Trauma(all); Age (range 32–77 years) | Foot: SAFE foot (all) | Spatiotemporal: WS, StrideL, StrideT, StanceT, DLS Time; Joint angles: Knee ROM, Hip ROM |
Statistical comparison |
| 4. Carse et al., 2020 | Identify differences in gait symmetry between NA and established unilateral TF mechanical knee users and characterize common gait deviations in TF group | 60 TF or KD IULLPs (49M 11F); Trauma(32), Infection(7), PAD w/o diabetes(7), PAD w/diabetes(1), Tumor(8), Other(5); Age (mean 51.1 SD 15.2 years); K2(10), K3(31), K4(18); 10 Controls (5M 5F) |
Sockets: IsC(37) Quad(19), Distal end bearing(4); Suspension: Seal-in(18), Total suction(15), Pin(9), Waist belts(13), Other(5) Knee: Polycentric(20), Hydraulic yielding(15), Stance (weight) activated(19), Single axis (alignment controlled)(1), Hand operated knee lock(2), Semi-automatic knee lock(1), Fluid controlled hydraulic(1), Other(1) | WS, StepL, StepT, BoS, COM deviation | Ratio |
| 5. Chow et al., 2006 | Investigate effects of anteroposterior translations and tilts in prosthesis alignment on gait symmetry | 7 TT (6M 1F); Age (range 32–58 years) | Sockets: PTB and SACH; some originally used exoskeletal designs; all used endoskeletal designs for study | Spatiotemporal: StepL, StanceT; Joint angles: Knee Flex at LR, Time to Knee Flex at LR, Max Knee Flex during Swing, Time to Max Knee Flex during Swing, Knee ROM |
(I-P) /(.5*(I+P))*100; absolute value |
| 6. Clemens et al., 2020 | Measurement of gait symmetry and repeatability using IMUs | 128 total IULLPs; 65 TT (34M and 31F) Age (mean 51 SD 14.1 years) 63 TF (27M and 36F) Age (mean 47.9 SD 16.2 years) |
NR | Thigh: Segmental Symmetry Score (SSS) and Segmental Repeatability Score (SRS); Shank: Segmental Symmetry Score and Segmental Repeatability Score; sagittal angular velocities of the thigh and shank |
100 − (100 ∗ x/y) where x is the average Angular Velocity Difference value, and y is the threshold of symmetry |
| 7. Cutti et al., 2018 | Determine reference values for gait temporal asymmetry | 60 K3-K4 total IULLPs; Trauma(all); 23 TT Age (mean 44 SD 14 years); 37 TF Age (mean 46 SD 10 years): 10 Controls |
Knee: Mechanical (12-including TotalKnee 2100(5), 3R60(2), Mauch(2)), C-leg (25); Feet: Vari-flex or Vari-flex LP foot, 1C40, Truestep, Esprit | StepT, StanceT | Ratio; StepT= I/P, StanceT= I/P |
| 8. Darter et al., 2013 | Investigate if home-based treadmill training improves gait performance in established unilateral TF MPK users | 8 TF; Trauma or Cancer; Age (mean 41.4 SD 12.1 years) | Knee: MPKs | StepL, StanceT | Ratio; StepL= longer/shorter, StanceT = P/I |
| 9. Darter et al., 2017 | Investigate locomotor adaptability on a split belt treadmill | 10 TT (all M); Trauma(all); Age (mean 32.2 range 23–39): 8 Controls |
Suspension: Suction with sleeve(8), Pin lock(1), Elevated vacuum(1) Feet: Vari-flex XC(5), Soleus Tactical(3), Re-flex Rotate(1), Kinterra(1) |
StepL, StanceT, Limb Excursion | (fast-slow)/ (fast + slow) |
| 10. De Asha and Buckley, 2015 | Investigate effects of walking speed on minimum toe clearance, and the temporal relationship between minimum clearance and peak swing-foot velocity | 10 TT (all M) Age (mean 48 SD 11.7 years) | Feet: Esprit | Minimum toe-ground clearance, Peak Swing Velocity | Statistical comparison |
| 11. Gholizadeh et al., 2014 | Investigate effects of suction and pin/lock suspension systems on gait performance | 10 TT; Trauma(5) Diabetes(5); Age (mean 45.8 SD 14.4 years); K2(4) K3(6) | Each participant used each suspension: Iceross Dermo Liner with pin lock, Iceross seal-in suction; Feet: Flex foot | Spatiotemporal: WS, StepL, StrideL, StanceT and SwingT; Joint Angles: Hip Position IC, Max Hip Ext, Hip ROM, Knee Position IC, Max Knee Flex Stance, Max Knee Flex Swing, Knee ROM, Ankle Position IC, Max Ankle PF Stance, Max Ankle PF Swing, Max Ankle DF Stance, Ankle ROM |
((I-P) / (.5*(I+P))) *100 |
| 12. Gholizadeh et al., 2020 | Compare effects of unity suspension system on gait between vacuum on and off conditions | 12 TT (11M 1F); Trauma(8), Diabetes(3), Infection(1); Age (mean 57.2 SD 15.3 years); K3(10) and K4(2) | Suspension: Pin-lock(9), Suction(2); fit with Unity elevated vacuum suspension and Pro-flex XC foot for study | Spatiotemporal: WS, StepL, Step width, StepT, StrideL, StrideT, StanceT, SwingT, SLS Time, DLS Time; Joint Angles: Hip ROM, Peak Hip Flex early Stance, Knee ROM, Peak Knee Flex Swing, Knee Flex IC, Ankle ROM, Peak Ankle PF early Stance, Peak Ankle DF Stance |
((I-P) / (.5*(I+P))) *100 |
| 13. Graham et al., 2007 | Compare gait symmetry between conventional (Multiflex) and ESAR(Vari-flex) prosthetic feet in high-functioning TF | 6 TF (all M): Age (range 34–50) | Knee: Blatchford stabilized with pneumatic swing phase control(1), IP (5); Feet: Multiflex(all); Foot changed to Vari-flex for study | Spatiotemporal: StepL, StanceT; Joint Angles: Ankle DF Late Stance, Knee Flex Midswing, Hip Flex Late Swing, Hip Ext Late Stance, Transverse Pelvic Rotation |
Ratio |
| 14. Hak et al., 2014 | Determine if stepping asymmetry might be functional in terms of gait stability | 10 TT (9M 1F); Trauma(8), Dysvascular(1), Other(1); Age (range 21–66) | Socket: TSB(1) PTB(9); Feet: Axtion(1), Elite VT(1), 1C40(3), Vari-flex EVO(2), Fusion(1), Celsus(1), Propiofoot(1) | StepL, FFP, Trunk Progression | (I / ((I+P)/2)*100 |
| 15. Hekmatfard et al., 2013 | Investigate effects of four prosthetic mass conditions on spatiotemporal knee kinematics | 10 TF (all M); Trauma(all); Age (range 27.2–60) | Socket: IC; Suspension: belt; Knee: single axis w/ext. assist; Foot: single axis | WS, Cadence, walking distance, StepL, StrideL, Step speed, gait cycle duration, Stance T, SwingT, COM | Statistical comparison |
| 16. Highsmith et al., 2010 | Determine differences in spatiotemporal parameters between transtibial and transfemoral IULLPs | 15 total IULLPs; 7 TT (all M); Trauma(3), PVD(3), Tumor(1); Age (range 32–70 years) 8 TF (all M); Trauma(all); Age (range 21–72 years) |
Suspension: shuttle lock(7-all TT), suction(6), seal-in (2) Knees: C-Leg(6), Rheo(1), Plie(1); Feet: Trustep(1), Proprio(1), Perfect stride II(1), Vari-flex(2), Renegade(2), Ceterus(1), 1C40(2), Reflex-VSP(1), ESAR foot where brand not indicated(2), Journey(1), Luxon Max(1) | WS, Cadence, StepL, Step width, StepT | ((I-P) / (I+P)) |
| 17. Houdijk et al., 2018 | Compare StepL symmetry and MoS between Vari-flex to SACH prosthetic feet | 15 TT (all M); Trauma(all); Age (mean 55.8 SD 11.1 years); K3(all) | all originally used ESAR foot; Feet: Variflex vs SACH foot | StepL, backward MoS | Statistical comparison |
| 18. Johansson et al., 2005 | Compare kinematics between the Mauch hydraulic knee, C-Leg MPK, and Rheo MPK | 8 TF LLPs (7M 1F); Trauma(3), Infection(2), Cancer(2), Congenital(1); Age (range 29–54 years) | Suspension: suction(6), silesian belt(1), pin-lock(1) | WS, StepL, StepT, SLS Time, DLS Time | Statistical comparison |
| 19. Kahle and Highsmith, 2014 | Compare gait, balance, and subjective analysis between IsC and brimless TF socket designs with vacuum assisted suspension | 10 TF (8M 2F); Trauma(7), PVD(2), Sarcoma(1); Age (mean 42.9 years) | Same liner, pump, knee, and foot utilized in both conditions; Knee: SAFE(1), C-leg(9); Feet: ESAR | WS, StepL, StepT, BoS width, SLS Time, DLS Time, Swing Time, StanceT | ((I-P) / (I+P)) |
| 20. Kaufman et al., 2012 | Compare gait asymmetry between TF of mechanical and MPKs | 15 TF (12M 3F); Trauma(7), Cancer(6), PVD(1), Congenital(1); Age (mean 42 range 26–57 years); K3 and K4: 20 NA (9M 11F); Age (mean 26 SD 9 years) |
Knee: session one with mechanical fluid controlled knee prosthesis (Mauch SNS(11), CaTech(2), Black Max(1), Total Knee 2000(1)); session 2 with Otto Bock C-Leg; Feet: kept same; Luxon Max(5), Dynamic Plus(1), College Park(1), Axtion(8) | Hip Stance, Hip Swing, Knee Stance, Knee Swing, Ankle Stance, Ankle Swing | Entire waveform analysis; singular value decomposition; subtracted the mean value from every value in the waveform |
| 21. Keklicek et al., 2019 | Compare gait variability and symmetry between trained individuals TT and TF | 25 total IULLPs; 14 TT (12M 2F); 11 TF (4M 7F); Trauma(all): 14 Controls (8M 6F) |
Knee: mechanical knee joint (Otto Bock 3R15); Feet: dynamic (Otto Bock 1D10) for both TT and TF Amps | StepL, StepL % Variability, StanceT, Ambulation Index Score (relative to 100 based on foot-to-foot time distribution ratio and average step cycle) | Statistical comparison |
| 22. Kovac et al., 2010 | Investigate spatial, temporal and kinematic characteristics in traumatic TT amputee gait | 12 TT (all M); Trauma(all); Age (mean 40.25 SD 6 years): 12 Controls; Age (mean 37.46 SD 5.25 years) |
Feet: Dynamic foot(7), Greissenger foot(2), Flex foot(2) | WS, Cadence, StepL, StrideL, StrideT, Swing Velocity, StanceT, SwingT, DLS Time | Statistical comparison |
| 23. Marinakis, 2004 | Compare interlimb symmetry in the early rehabilitation stage between two different prosthetic feet (Greissenger Plus and SACH) | 9 TT (all M); Trauma (all); Age (mean 54.3 years SD 2.1 years): 13 Controls (all M); Age (mean 52.3 years SD 11.3 years) |
PTB socket with removable prosthetic liner (all); used Greissenger Plus and SACH for study | Spatiotemporal: WS, Cadence, StepL, StepT, StanceT, StrideT, %StrideT (division of StanceT by the StrideT and multiplied by 100); Joint Angles: Hip ROM, Knee ROM, Ankle ROM |
Method 1: 100* min(P,I)/max(P,I); Method 2: 100-((100*(P-I)) /(.5*(P+I))) for absolute difference; Method 3: 100-(P-I)(*50/max(P,I)-min(P,I))) |
| 24. Mattes et al., 2000 | Investigate walking symmetry after matching prosthetic and intact limb inertial properties | 6 TT; Age (mean 35 SD 12 years); Trauma(3), Blood Clot(1), Cancer(1), Congenital(1) | NR | StepL, SwingT, StanceT | ((P-I) / (.5*(P+I))) *100 |
| 25. Mishra et al., 2019 | Compare kinematic gait symmetry between the Jaipur knee joint to each participant’s prescribed prosthesis | 11 TF (9M 2F); Age (mean 45 range 26–66 years); Trauma(8), PVD(2), Cancer(1) | Knee: Jaipur used in study; prescribed prostheses NR | Hip ROM, Knee ROM, Ankle ROM; all separated into swing and stance | Entire waveform analysis; singular value decomposition; subtracted the mean value from every value in the waveform |
| 26. Moore, 2016 | Compare StanceT asymmetry between hydraulic ankle units(Avalon for K2 and Echelon for K3) and previous prescription | 13 total IULLPs; 7 TT; 6 TF; K3(6) K2(7) | Feet: K2 level= originally used Multiflex(12). K3 level= on the Multiflex(3), Javelin(2), Dynamic Response (1), Re-flex VSP(1), Seattle Lite-foot(1), Elite Blade(1), 1D10(1); Echelon (K3) and Avalon (K2) feet for study | StanceT | Statistical comparison |
| 27. Morgan et al., 201683 | Compare effects of a concurrent cognitive task on walking between TF MPK users and NA | 14 TF (9M 5F); Trauma(8) Tumor(3) Vascular(1) Infection(2); Age (mean 53.8 SD 13.6 years): 14 Controls |
Suspension: suction, seal-in, or pin-locking liners; Knee: all MPK= C-Leg, Genium, X2 | WS, Cadence, Step Width, StepT, StrideL | Absolute value of the difference between right and left |
| 28. Moylan et al., 2015 | Investigate effects of increased prosthetic mass on gait symmetry in dysvascular TF | 10 TF (9M 1F); PVD(all); Age (mean 64 range 52–78 years); No assistive device(2), Cane(3), Walker(3), Rollator(2) | Suspension: suction(3), silesian belt(7); Knee: Mauch SNS(4), Locked(6) Foot: SACH(4), Single axis(4), Multi-axis(2) | StepL, StepT, Step Width, SLS Time | ((I-P) / (I+P)) |
| 29. Nadollek et al., 2002 | Investigate the relationship between quiet stance ability, strength of the hip abductor muscles, and gait | 22 TT; PVD(10), Diabetic complications(12); Age (mean 71.7 range 54–86 years) | Socket: PTB or patella tendon supracondylar prosthesis; Suspension: cuff, silicone liner, or shuttle lock | WS, Cadence, StepL, StrideL, Stance: Swing Ratio, DLS Time | Statistical comparison |
| 30. Nolan et al., 2003 | Compare WS gait symmetry between TF, TT, and NA | 8 total IULLPs; 4 TT Age (mean 29 SD 18.9 years); 4 TF Age (mean 31.5 SD 10.9 years); Trauma(all): 6 Controls (32.2 SD 9.3 years) |
Knee: hinge knee prosthesis with SACH foot(all TF); Feet: SACH foot(all TT) | StepT, StanceT, SwingT | (I-P)/ (.5*(I+P)) *100; absolute value |
| 31. Orekhov et al., 2019 | Investigate knee joint biomechanics in gait, cycling, and elliptical training | 10 TT (7M 3F); Age (mean 32.2 SD 6.7 years): 10 Controls; Age (range 20–26 years) |
Foot: Vari-Flex; (8) originally used this foot | Max MS Knee Flex Angle (and timing), Max Swing Knee Flex Angle (and timing) | Statistical comparison |
| 32. Petersen et al., 2010 | Compare gait symmetry between the C-leg MPK and hydraulic 3R60 in TF | 5 TF (4M 1F); Trauma(3), Cancer(2); Age (range 26–48 years) | Socket: IsC(4), Stump end bearing socket(1); Knee: C-leg and 3R60 (all originally used C-Leg but had past experience with hydraulic knees) Feet: Pacifica LP(1), Renegade(1), C-Walk(1), Axtion(1), Flex-foot(1) | StepL, StanceT, SLS Time, Temporal Symmetry % (calculated from duration of stance phase), Spatial Symmetry % (calculated from step length) | ((I-P)/ (.5*(I+P)) * 100; absolute value |
| 33. Roerdink et al., 2012 | Determine if StepL asymmetry should be measured in conjunction with FFP and trunk progression | 3 TT (2M 1F); Vascular(1), Trauma (2); Age (range 29–68): 7 TF (1F 6 M); Vascular(4), Trauma(3); Age (range 50–68) |
Knees= 3R60(2), OFM1(1), 3R33(1), Hybrid Knee N1-C311(1), 3R106(1), C-leg(1); Feet: Multiflex(2), 1D10/1D11(4), 1C30 Trias(1), Vari-flex with EVO(1), Flex-Foot Assure(1), C-Walk 1C40(1) | StepL, FFP, Trunk Progression | ((P-I)/(P+I)) * 100 |
| 34. Rowe, 2014 | Determine if music improves self-regulated walking in terms of cadence and gait symmetry in TT with nontraumatic amputations | 17 TT (15M 2F); Vascular(10), Congenital(5), Complications following trauma(2); Age (mean 52.2 SD 12.9 years) | Participants using microprocessor or carbon fiber spring feet not included | WS, Cadence, StepL, StepT, SLS Time | ((P-I)/ (.5*(P+I))) *100 |
| 35. Schaarschmidt et al., 2012 | Compare gait symmetry between the C-Leg MPK and the hydraulic 3R80 in TF | 5 TF; Trauma(all); Age (mean 42.6 SD 13.4 years) | Knees: C-Leg (all, all had prior experience with mechanical knees) Feet: C-Walk | StepT, StanceT, SLS Time, DLS time | ((P-I)/ (.5*(P+I))) *100 |
| 36. Segal et al., 2006 | Compare gait symmetry between the C-Leg MPK and the Mauch SNS hydraulic knee after 3 month acclimation periods with each knee | 8 TF (7M 1F); Age (mean 29 years) 6 Controls (all M) |
Socket: thermoplastic(4),carbon fiber(4); Suspension: pin(6), suction(2); Knees: C-Leg (all), Mauch SNS (all); Feet of C-Leg users: Dynamic Plus(5), C-Walk(1), LuXon Max(2); Feet of Mauch SNS users: Seattle Lite Foot(5), Flex Walk Foot(3) | Spatiotemporal: WS, StepL; Joint Angles: Max Knee Flex in early stance, Knee Flex at opposite heel strike, Max Knee Flex during Swing |
Statistical comparison |
| 37. Sjodahl et al., 2002 | Compare gait in the sagittal plane before and after special gait re-education | 9 TF (5M 4F); Trauma or Tumor; Age (mean 33 range 16–51 years): 18 total Controls; 9 Controls (all M); Age (mean 33 range 21–47 years): 9 NA (all F); Age (mean 39 range 25–52 years) |
Socket: IsC(3), Quad(6) Knee: Total knee mechanical(3), Aqua pend pneumatic(3), T-Ling pneumatic(1), Mauch knee hydraulic(1), Vaxjo knee hydraulic(1) Feet: Seattle foot(2), Flex foot(6), Multiflex(1), Multiaxis Vaxjo foot(1) | Spatiotemporal: WS, Cadence, StepL, SLS Time, DLS Time; Joint Angles: Hip Flex ROM, Knee Flex ROM, Ankle ROM |
Statistical comparison |
| 38. Smith and Martin, 2013 | Investigate effects of prosthetic mass distribution on walking symmetry | 6 TT (5M 1 F); Trauma(5) Congenital bone disease(1); Age (mean 47 SD 16 years) | Feet: Genesis(1), College Park(3), Flex-foot(2) | StanceT, SwingT, Max Knee Angular Velocity during Swing, Max Thigh Angular Velocity during Swing | ((P-I) / (.5*(P+I))) *100 |
| 39. Supan et al., 2010 | Investigate effects of a Talux prosthetic foot on gait parameters of nonvascular TT | 10 TT (7M 3F); Nonvascular(all); Age (range 34–62 years) | Talux (3 originally used Talux) | Spatiotemporal: WS, Cadence, StepL, StepT, %SLS, StanceT; Joint Angles: Hip Position at IC, Hip Max Ext, Hip ROM, Knee Position at IC, Knee Max Flex at Stance, Knee Max Ext at Stance, Knee Max Swing Flex, Knee ROM, Ankle Position at IC, Ankle Max PF at Stance, Ankle Max DF at Stance, Ankle Max PF at Swing, Ankle ROM, Foot Progression Angle at IC, Foot Progression Angle Min at Swing, Foot Progression Angle ROM |
Statistical comparison |
| 40. Svoboda and Janura, 2007 | Investigate effects of prosthetic alignment (DF and PF) and prosthetic foot length changes (shorter and longer) on temporal symmetry of I and P limbs | 11 TT (all M); Age (mean 58 SD 9.47 years) | Feet: all dynamic feet characterized by a smooth rollover during gait and intended for second level activity users | StanceT, SwingT, %Stance (StanceT/duration of gait cycle) | ((I-P) / (I+P)) * 100 |
| 41. Uchytil et al., 2014 | Compare spatiotemporal parameters between the Rheo MPK and the Mauch SNS hydraulic knee in TF | 8 TF (4M 4F); Age (mean 38.2 SD 6.1 years); K3(all) 10 Controls (8M 2F); Age (mean 27.6 SD 5.2 years) |
All used ischial containment and SACH foot; Knees: Rheo MPK, Mauch SNS hydraulic knee | StepL, StepT, StanceT, SwingT | ((I-P)/ (.5*(I+P)) * 100 |
| 42. Uchytil et al., 2017 | Compare pelvis and lower limb joint angles in TF Rheo MPK and hydraulic knee joint users | 11 TF (6M 5F); Trauma(3), Cancer(7),; Age (mean 39.2 SD 10.1 years): 10 Controls (8M 2F); Age (mean 27.6 SD 5.2 years) |
All used IsC socket and SACH foot; Knee: Rheo MPK, Hydraulic | Pelvis: Min Pelvic Tilt, Min Pelvic Obliquity, Max Pelvic Obliquity, Max Rot; Hip: Flex IC, Max Ext in Stance, Max Flex in Swing, Max Add in Stance, Max Abd in Swing, Max Int Rot in Stance, Max Ext Rot in Swing; Knee: Flex at IC, Max Flex during LR, Max Ext Stance, Max Flex Swing, Max IR in Stance, Max ER in Swing |
((I-P) / (I+P)) * 100 |
| 43. Xu et al., 2017 | Investigate effects of vacuum level on gait characteristics in TT of elevated vacuum suspension | 9 TT; Trauma(5), Vascular(1), Other(3); Age (mean 51.1 SD 16.1 years); K3(7) and K4(2): 9 Controls; Age (mean 27.8 SD 3.7 years) |
all originally used elevated vacuum suspension | Spatiotemporal: WS, Cadence, StepL, StepT, StanceT, SLS Time, DLS Time; Joint Angles: Hip Ext Stance, Hip Abd Swing, Hip ER Swing, Hip ROM Sagittal, Hip ROM Frontal, Hip ROM Transverse, Knee Flex Swing, Knee ROM Sagittal, Knee ROM Frontal, Knee ROM Transverse, Ankle DF Stance, Ankle PF Swing, Ankle ROM Sagittal |
Statistical comparison |
| 44. Yang et al., 2018 | Compare gait patterns between two different shapes of ESAR prosthetic feet: 1C30 Trias and 1C60 Triton (has split forefoot and heel wedge) in TT | 10 TT; Age (mean 63.8 SD 2.49 years); K2(4) and K3(6) | 1C30 Trias, 1C60 Triton; none originally used ESAR feet | Spatiotemporal: WS, Cadence, StepL, Step Width, StanceT, SwingT; Stance: Swing Ratio Joint Angles: Hip Ext at TS, Hip Flex at Midswing, Knee Flex at TS, Knee Flex at Midswing, Ankle PF at IC, Ankle DF at MS, Ankle PF at TS, Ankle Pronation at early MS, Ankle Supination at onset of Preswing |
Statistical comparison |
Abbreviations: TT= individuals who use transtibial prostheses, TF= individuals who use transfemoral prostheses, IULLPs= individuals who use unilateral lower-limb prostheses, M= male, F= female, I= intact, P= prosthetic, SD= standard deviation, ESAR= energy storage and return, PTB= patellar tendon bearing, SACH= solid ankle cushion heel, MPK= microprocessor knee, IsC= ischial containment, WS= walking speed, StepL= step length, StepT= step time, StrideL= stride length, StrideT= stride time, StanceT= stance time, SwingT= swing time, SLS= single limb support, DLS= double limb support, BoS= base of support, MoS= margin of stability, FFP= forward foot placement, COM= center of mass, ROM= range of motion, Min= minimum, Max= maximum, PF= plantarflexion, DF= dorsiflexion, Flex= flexion, Ext= extension, Add= adduction, Abd= abduction, IR= internal rotation, ER= external rotation, IC= initial contact, MS= midstance, LR= loading response, TS= terminal stance.
Liner manufacturer: Iceross (Ossur, Reykjavik, Iceland).
Knee manufacturers: KX06, Linx, IP, CaTech, Black Max (Blatchford, USA, Canada, and UK); Jaipur Knee (BMVSS organization, Jaipur, India); Hybrid Knee N1-C311 (Nabtesco, Kobe, Japan); Rheo, Total Knee 2000, Total Knee 2100, Mauch SNS, OFM (Ossur, Reykjavik, Iceland); C-leg, Genium, X2, 3R60, 3R15, 3R33, 3R106, Aqua Knee (Ottobock, Duderstadt, Germany); SAFE (ST&G, California, USA).
Foot manufacturers: Foot manufacturers: Echelon, Echelon VT, Elan, Linx, Esprit, Multiflex, Javelin, Elite Blade, Avalon (Blatchford, USA, Canada, UK); Celsus, Truestep, Soleus Tactical (College Park, MI, USA); Genesis II (MICA Manufacturing Corp, WA, USA); Kinterra, Pacifica LP, Renegade (Freedom Innovations, CA, USA); Vari-flex, Vari-flex LP, Vari-flex XC, Vari-flex EVO, Pro-flex XC, Propiofoot, Reflex VSP, Reflex Rotate, Flex-foot, Flex-foot Assure, Talux (Ossur, Reykjavik, Iceland); Axtion, 1C30 Trias, 1C60 Triton, 1C40 C-Walk, 1D10, 1D11, Greissenger Plus, LuXon Max (Otto Bock, Duderstadt, Germany); Seattle Lite-foot (Trulife, USA, Canada, UK, Ireland); Fusion (Willowwood, OH, USA).