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. 2023 Mar 13;15(3):evad044. doi: 10.1093/gbe/evad044

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© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Fig. 3. — Associations between genetic pleiotropy, stage specificity, and evolutionary statistics. d_N/d_S values (A) were compared among non-pleiotropic immune genes, genes with pleiotropic roles in development and immunity, and developmental genes with no known pleiotropic role in immunity. d_N/d_S values were also compared between pleiotropic genes that scored within the top and bottom quartiles of stage-specific expression (B), where non-specific pleiotropic genes are broadly expressed across life stages (tau ≤ 0.576) while the top quartile is specifically or maximally expressed in fewer stages (tau ≥ 0.767). The alpha values of genes in each category from the Raleigh (C) and Zambia (D) populations both illustrate higher proportions of adaptive substitutions within pleiotropic genes. Differences among groups were statistically analyzed using a Kruskal–Wallis test (A, C, D) followed by post hoc Dunn tests (P values BH-adjusted) or a Wilcoxon test (B). P values reproduced on the figure; n.s. = not significant (P.adj > 0.05).