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. 2023 Mar 31;14(5):1183–1191. doi: 10.1007/s12671-023-02114-7

Parenting During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Portugal: The Mediating Role of Work-Family Guilt in the Relationship Between Self-Compassion and Mindful Parenting in a Sample of Working Mothers

Ana C Góis 1,✉, Brígida Caiado 1, Helena Moreira 1
PMCID: PMC10063942  PMID: 37304658

Abstract

Objectives

The current study explored the mediating role of work interference on family guilt (WIFG) and family interference on work guilt (FIWG) in association with parents’ self-compassion and mindful parenting during the COVID-19 pandemic, while controlling for the effects of educational level and marital status.

Method

In May 2020, a sample of 398 mothers (26–50 years) participated in the study and completed an online survey that included a sociodemographic form and measures of self-compassion, work-family guilt, and mindful parenting. A parallel multiple mediation model was tested to explore the indirect effect of parents’ self-compassion on mindful parenting through WIFG and FIWG. Independent samples t-tests were performed to compare study variables by mothers’ working conditions during the pandemic.

Results

The mediation analysis indicated that parents’ higher levels of self-compassion were indirectly associated with higher levels of mindful parenting through lower levels of WIFG/FIWG. Comparison analyses indicated that mothers who were working in their workplace during the pandemic reported higher levels of WIFG than those working from home; conversely, mothers who were working from home reported higher levels of FIWG than those working in their workplace.

Conclusions

These data highlight the importance of research in this field and support the development of intervention community programs for promoting mindful parenting, by developing more adaptive emotional regulation strategies such as self-compassion, which specifically target parents who experience higher levels of guilt associated with work and family conflict.

Preregistration

This study is not pre-registered.

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic, Self-compassion, Work-family guilt, Mindful parenting

In January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a public health emergency of international concern after the first clusters of people infected by COVID-19 were detected in Wuhan, China (WHO, 2020). Because of the increasing transmission rate over March 2020, on March 18, 2020, the Portuguese government implemented the first emergency state. Under an emergency state, schools/universities, child-care facilities, businesses, shops, sports, and social and cultural events were closed, and people were encouraged to stay at home (Portuguese Government, 2020a, b). These measures extended until May 4, 2020.

These restriction measures imposed during the first COVID-19 outbreak have caused significant global disruption to many Portuguese families. With all education and child-care facilities closed, the educational role of parents has become more crucial than ever, with parents attempting to work from home while providing support with homework and other school tasks to their children. In addition to the negative effects of isolation, such as exhaustion, irritability, insomnia, anxiety, frustration, fear, and detachment from others (Brooks et al., 2020), the conflict of roles and responsibilities experienced by parents during the COVID-19 pandemic was found to be stressful and potentially harmful for parents’ well-being (Coyne et al., 2020; Spinelli et al., 2020).

According to Kabat-Zinn and Kabat-Zinn, (1997), mindful parenting can be defined as a nonjudgmental, present-centered and compassionate parental approach. Grounded in parenting research and mindfulness-based interventions, Duncan et al. (2009) proposed a theoretical model explaining the positive impact of mindful parenting on the parent–child relationship. This model proposes that mindful parenting comprises five dimensions: (1) listening to the child with full attention, (2) nonjudgmental acceptance of self and the child, (3) emotional awareness of the self and child, (4) self-regulation in the parenting relationship, and (5) compassion for the self as a parent and child (Duncan et al., 2009).

Several studies have shown the positive effects of mindful parenting on parents’ psychological functioning such as less parenting stress (Bögels & Restifo, 2014; Gouveia et al., 2016) and on parent–child relationships such as higher-quality parent–child relationships, more secure attachment between parents and children, and more positive parenting practices (Duncan et al., 2009; Medeiros et al., 2016; Williams & Wahler, 2010).

Some studies have attempted to understand the determinants of mindful parenting. For instance, research has shown that mindful parenting is related to the processes underlying mindfulness such as emotional awareness, emotion and attention regulation, attunement, and compassion (Townshend, 2016). According to Neff (2009), one central intrinsic characteristic associated with the ability to be mindful is self-compassion, which is consistent with subsequent studies that have indicated that parents with greater self-compassion tend to present higher levels of mindful parenting (Gouveia et al., 2016).

Neff (2003) conceptualized self-compassion as a positive and adaptive self-to-self relationship that comprises three main bipolar dimensions: (1) self-kindness vs. self-judgment (i.e., a kind attitude toward the self in painful and failure moments instead of using self-criticism); (2) common humanity vs. isolation (i.e., integrating one’s painful experiences as a part of common human experiences rather than feeling isolated); and (3) mindfulness vs. overidentification (i.e., being aware of painful and suffering experiences, emotions, and thoughts, instead of avoiding or being absorbed by negative experiences; Gilbert & Procter, 2006; Neff, 2009).

The literature has shown the positive impact of self-compassion on the parent-children relationship. The literature revealed that an accepting and caring self-to-self relationship is crucial for helping parents resolve their negative emotions and children’s negative emotions (Moreira et al., 2015a; Neff & Faso, 2015). Additionally, self-compassion seems to improve the ability of parents to cope with the demands and challenges of the parenting role, to be more supportive and less critical of themselves and their parenting skills, and to reduce parenting stress (Bögels et al., 2014; Moreira et al., 2015b). According to Neff (2011), self-compassion may act as a coping mechanism, increasing the individual’s ability to deal with daily stressors and conflicts related to work and family contexts. In this context, Sirois et al. (2019) have demonstrated that the adoption of a self-compassionate attitude by parents was linked to a reduction in guilt feeling in response to a negative parenting event, suggesting that parents with higher levels of self-compassion experience less feeling of “bad behavior” or “bad self” in relation to parenting events. Additionally, previous research has demonstrated a positive relationship between self-compassion and mindful parenting. A study conducted by Gouveia et al. (2016) pointed out that mothers with higher levels of self-compassion tend to be less self-judgmental about their limitations and imperfections as mothers and feel more confident about their parental ability. Additionally, this study suggests that integrating their own imperfections as a part of common human experience helps mothers accept their flaws and their child’s limitations and defects in a non-critical way. On the other hand, a greater capacity to be self-compassionate about painful emotions and thoughts may help mothers to be more aware of their and their children’s emotions and help them to self-regulate their interactions with the child, which is a central facet of mindful parenting (Gouveia et al., 2016).

In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, recent studies have shown that higher levels of self-compassion are associated with the ability to cope with feelings of work loneliness (Andel et al., 2021), greater life satisfaction in self-quarantined people (Li et al., 2021), decreased intolerance of uncertainty, and consequently, lower levels of perceived fear of COVID-19 and COVID-19 stress (Deniz, 2021; Nguyen & Le, 2021). Considering these results and previous studies highlighting the impact of self-compassion on mindful parenting (Gouveia et al., 2016) and work-family conflict (Neff, 2011), it can be hypothesized that self-compassion increases the probability of adopting a mindful parenting approach by decreasing work-family guilt.

In recent decades, the association between work and family responsibilities and the consequent experience of conflict between these domains have been an area of interest for numerous researchers (Moreira et al., 2019; Ohu et al., 2019; Van den Eynde et al., 2020). During the COVID-19 pandemic, interest in understanding the conciliation between work and family life became particularly important, given the significant changes in parents’ work and in family roles. Reconciling work and family demands is a challenge that many families currently face, especially since the beginning of the restriction measures imposed during the COVID-19 outbreak. Work-family conflict has two distinct but related dimensions: the impact of work responsibilities and demands in private life (defined as work-family conflict) and family responsibilities in work-life (defined as family-work conflict; Erdamar & Demirel, 2014).

Research on the work-family and family-work interface has shown that the relationships between these domains are mutual, affecting each other and resulting in adverse consequences in work and family life (Adams et al., 1996; Erdamar & Demirel, 2014). According to Michel et al. (2011), work-family and family-work conflicts may be determined by multiple variables. Work-family conflict seems to be more associated with work role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, time demands, job involvement, work interest/centrality, work social support, and work characteristics (task variety, schedule flexibility, job autonomy, family-friendly organization). Family-work conflict is more related to family role conflict, parental demands, number and age of children/dependents, family social support, and family characteristics.

One study conducted by Moreira et al. (2019) demonstrated a negative link between work-family conflict and parents’ relationship with their children, suggesting that parents who experienced increased levels of work-family conflict tend to adopt a less mindful and compassionate parenting approach (Moreira et al., 2019). Specifically, this study has demonstrated the association between work-family conflict and mindful parenting, showing that parents who experience higher levels of work-family conflict tend to be more judgmental, less warm, less able to listen, and less engaged in activities with their children in an attentive way.

The conflict between family and work responsibilities may stimulate several emotional reactions in parents, such as guilt about the negative effect of work on family (work interference on family guilt, WIFG) and guilt about the negative impact of family on work (family interference on work guilt, FIWG; Borelli et al., 2017). WIFG is an emotion that emerges when individuals have to choose between work and family (Conlin, 2000), and it can be associated with the difficulty of adequately balancing these two contexts (Napholz, 2000). According to McElwain et al. (2005), the WIFG and the FIWG are outcomes of inter-role conflict that help explain the negative consequences that result from work-family conflict (Korabik et al., 2017).

Despite the focus of work-family conflict research on family and parental variables (e.g., parents’ and children’s health and well-being), the literature is scarce on the impact of work-family conflict on mindful parenting. Considering the impact of COVID-19 on the daily lives of many families, specifically in parenting, there is an important need to understand which factors may be associated with more adaptive parenting behaviors, namely, mindful parenting attitudes. This study aimed to explore the role of parents’ self-compassion in their ability to adopt a compassionate and mindful approach in the relationship with their children and to analyze whether this association could be mediated by parents’ guilt related to work interference on family and to family interference on work. Based on studies that demonstrate the impact of self-compassion on the ability to adopt a mindful approach in parenting (Gouveia et al., 2016) and the effect of self-compassion on the ability to deal with work and family stressors (Neff, 2011), it was hypothesized that higher levels of parents’ self-compassion would be associated with higher levels of mindful parenting through a reduction of work interference on family guilt and of family interference on work guilt.

Method

Participants

The sample included 398 Portuguese mothers of children aged between 1 and 10 years. As presented in Table 1, the mothers’ age ranged from 26 to 50 years, with a mean age of 38.92 years (SD = 4.49). Mothers were from all regions of Portugal, particularly from Central Portugal, the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, and northern Portugal. All participants had at least one child and a maximum of five children (M = 1.73; SD = 0.71). The majority were living with a partner (88.2%), were working from home during the first lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic (60.6%), and had a monthly household income above 2400€ (80.4%).

Table 1.

Participants’ sociodemographic characteristics

n = 398
Parents’ characteristics
  Mothers’ age (years), M (SD), range 38.92 (4.49), 26–50
  Marital status, n (%)
    Living with a partner 351 (88.2%)
    Not living with a partner 47 (11.8%)
  Education level, n (%)
    Basic or secondary education 115 (28.9%)
    Higher education 283 (71.1%)
  Household monthly income, n (%)
    Less than 2400€ 320 (80.4%)
    2500€ or more 78 (19.6%)
  Regions of Portugal, n (%)
    Northern of Portugal 105 (26.4%)
    Central Portugal 121 (30.4%)
    Lisbon Metropolitan Area 104 (26.1%)
    Alentejo 25 (6.3%)
    Algarve 16 (4%)
    Azores 18 (4.5%)
    Madeira 9 (2.3%)
  Number of children, M (SD), range 1.73 (0.71), 1–5
Children’s characteristics
  Children’s age category, n (%)
    Preschool children (1–6 years) 264 (66.3%)
    Grade-school children (7–10 years) 134 (33.7%)
COVID-19 situation characteristics
  Working condition during COVID-19, n (%)
    Working in their workplace 157 (39.4%)
    Working from home 241 (60.6%)
  Lockdown period (days), M (SD), range 41.93 (24.20), 0–90
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Procedure

The sample was collected online through a data collection website (LimeSurvey®) in May 2020. This period corresponds to a period of major restrictions in Portugal. The nurseries, kindergartens, and schools were closed, and most working parents with children aged under 12 years were allowed to work from home and/or to take care of their children. The parents were invited to participate in a study about the impact of COVID-19 on parenting through social networks. The invitation to collaborate in this study was accompanied by detailed information about the study aims and procedures. The inclusion criteria were as follows: being the mother of a child of preschool (1–5 years) and school (6–10 years) age and working (from home or in their workplace) at the time the data were collected. On the first page of the online survey, a brief description of the voluntary nature of the participation and the confidentiality of the collected data was presented. Only those who agreed to the study conditions and provided their informed consent completed the assessment protocol. In total, 1290 parents participated in the study. Of these parents, 892 were excluded because they did not meet the inclusion criteria or did not complete one or more study questionnaires.

Measures

Sociodemographic Information

Sociodemographic information was reported by participants and included parents’ age, gender, marital status, education level, monthly household income, residence district, number of children, and children’s age. Participants were also asked about their working conditions during COVID-19 (working in their workplace or working from home).

Self-Compassion

The Self-Compassion Scale – Short Form (SCS; Raes et al., 2011) is a self-report measure used to assess six dimensions of self-compassion: (1) self-kindness (e.g., “I try to be understanding and patient toward those aspects of my personality that I do not like.”), (2) self-judgment (e.g., “I am disapproving and judgmental about my flaws and inadequacies.”), (3) common humanity (e.g., “I try to see my failings as part of the human condition”), (4) isolation (e.g., When I am feeling down, I tend to feel like most other people are probably happier than I am.”), (5) mindfulness (e.g., “When something upsets me, I try to keep my emotions in balance.”), and (6) overidentification (e.g., “When I am feeling down, I tend to fixate upon everything that is wrong.”). The Portuguese version (Castilho et al., 2015) has 12 items, answered on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = almost never to 5 = almost always). After the negative items were reverse-coded, the total score results from the sum of the items, with higher scores indicating higher levels of self-compassion. Both the original (Neff, 2003) and the Portuguese versions (Castilho et al., 2015) have shown good psychometric properties, including adequate reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89 in both. In this study, we used only the total score in order to keep the model simple. In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha of the total score was 0.87.

Work-Family Guilt

The Work-Family Guilt Scale (WFGS; Gonçalves et al., 2018; McElwain, 2008) is a self-report measure designed to assess two dimensions of work-family interference guilt: (1) parents’ perceived guilt about the negative impact of work on family, assessed by the Work Interference on Family Guilt subscale (WIFG; e.g., “I feel guilty about the time that I am unable to spend with my family due to work”) and (2) parents’ perceived guilt about the negative impact of family on work, assessed by the Family Interference on Work Guilt subscale (FIWG; e.g., “I feel bad because I frequently have to take time away from work to deal with issues happening at home”). The Portuguese version has 7 items, scored on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = very strongly disagree to 7 = very strongly agree). The total score results from the sum of the items, with higher scores indicating higher levels of guilt. The original version (McElwain et al., 2005) has shown good psychometric proprieties (WIFG: α = 0.87; FIWG: α = 0.85). The Portuguese version showed good psychometric properties, including adequate reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.86 (WIFG) and 0.84 (FIWG). Concerning the current study, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.87 for WIFG and 0.75 for FIWG.

Mindful Parenting

The Interpersonal Mindfulness in Parenting Scale (IM-P; Duncan, 2007; Moreira & Canavarro, 2017) is a self-report measure designed to assess five dimensions of mindful parenting: (1) listening with full attention (LFA; e.g., “I rush through activities with my child without being really attentive to him/her”), (2) compassion for the child (CC; e.g., “I try to be understanding and patient with my child when he/she is having a hard time”), (3) non-judgmental acceptance of parental functioning (NJAPF; e.g., “I listen carefully to my child’s ideas even when I disagree with them”), (4) self-regulation in parenting (SR; e.g., “In difficult situations with my child, I pause without immediately reacting”), and (5) emotional awareness of the child (EAC; e.g., “I notice how changes in my child mood affect my mood”). The Portuguese version has 29 items, scored on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never true to 5 = always true). The total score results from the sum of the items, with higher scores indicating higher levels of mindful parenting. The Portuguese version (Moreira & Canavarro, 2017) has shown good psychometric properties and construct validity among parents from the general community. In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha of the total score was 0.88.

Data Analyses

The software SPSS (v.25; IBM Corp, Armonk, NY) was used to conduct all statistical analyses. Descriptive statistics were performed for the sociodemographic and study variables. Pearson correlations were computed to explore the relationship between study variables. In addition, correlations between the main sociodemographic variables, mediators, and dependent variables were analyzed to identify potential covariates that should be controlled in the mediation model. Correlation scores of approximately 0.10 were considered small or negligible, those of approximately 0.30 were considered moderate, and those above 0.50 were considered large (Cohen, 1988). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used as an indicator of the internal consistency of the instruments. Independent samples t-tests were performed to compare two working conditions during the pandemic (working in the workplace and working from home) in study variables.

To investigate the indirect effect of parents’ self-compassion on mindful parenting through WIFG and FIWG, a parallel multiple mediation model was examined using the Process Macro for SPSS tool (v.3.5; Hayes 2020), applying Model 4 with 5000 bias-corrected bootstrap samples. In this model, parents’ self-compassion was the independent variable, work interference on family guilt and family interference on work guilt were the mediators, and mindful parenting was the dependent variable. This procedure creates 95% bias-corrected and accelerated confidence intervals (95% BCa CIs) of the indirect effects, which are considered significant if zero is not contained within the lower and upper CIs.

Results

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics of the study variables and the correlations between them. Correlation results showed that parents’ self-compassion was positively associated with mindful parenting and negatively correlated with WIFG and FIWG. WIFG and FIWG were positively correlated with each other and negatively correlated with mindful parenting. All correlations were weak or moderate, except for the strong and positive correlation between parents’ self-compassion and mindful parenting.

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics and correlations between study variables (n = 398)

α M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Self-compassion 0.87 3.19 0.64 –
2. WIFG 0.86 4.60 1.69  − 0.43** –
3. FIWG 0.73 2.70 1.54  − 0.28** 0.20** –
4. Mindful parenting 0.89 103.03 12.04 0.60**  − 0.43**  − 0.28** –
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**p < 0.01

Prior to estimating the mediation models, correlations between sociodemographic variables (parent’s age, educational level, gender, marital status, and number of children), WIFG, FIWG, and mindful parenting were analyzed to identify variables that should be controlled in the mediation model. As presented in Table 3, the correlation between FIWG and marital status was statistically significant. Therefore, mothers’ marital status was introduced as covariates in the mediation model.

Table 3.

Correlations among sociodemographic and the mediator and dependent variables (n = 398)

WIFG FIWG Mindful parenting
1. Mothers’ age  − 0.07  − 0.04 0.02
2. Educational level  − 0.01 0.01  − 0.03
3. Marital status  − 0.01  − 0.13**  − 0.01
4. Number of children 0.02  − 0.03  − 0.06
5. Children’s age  − 0.03 0.06  − 0.03
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Educational level: basic/secondary education = 0, higher education = 1; marital status: not living with a partner = 0, living with a partner = 1; Children’s age: preschool children = 0, grade children = 1

**p < 0.01

The results showed that the total and direct effects of parents’ self-compassion on mindful parenting were significant (total effect: b = 11.56, SE = 0.77, p < 0.001; direct effect: b = 9.35, SE = 0.84, p < 0.001). As presented in Fig. 1, the association between self-compassion and WIFG (b =  − 1.05; SE = 0.11, p < 0.001) and FIWG (b =  − 0.66; SE = 0.11, p < 0.001) was also significant. The association between WIFG and mindful parenting (b =  − 1.59; SE = 0.34, p < 0.001) as well as the association between FIWG and mindful parenting (b =  − 0.80; SE = 0.33, p < 0.05) were also significant in a model explaining 19% of WIFG, 10% of FIWG and 41% of mindful parenting. Finally, self-compassion was found to have an indirect effect on mindful parenting through both WIFG (indirect effect = 1.67, SE = 0.40, 95% CI = [0.95, 2.51]) and FIWG (indirect effect = 0.53, SE = 0.24, 95% CI [0.09, 1.04]).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Path model. Note: Unstandardized path coefficients among variables are presented. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

Regarding differences between groups, no significant differences between the two working conditions were found in self-compassion, t(396) =  − 1.123, p = 0.262, and mindful parenting, t(396) =  − 0.374, p = 0.709. In contrast, mothers working in their workplace during the pandemic reported higher levels of WIFG, t(396) = 2.128, p = 0.034, and lower levels of FIWG, t(396) =  − 2.83, p = 0.005, than those working from home (Table 4).

Table 4.

T test comparisons of studied variables by working condition

Working in workplace
(n = 157)		 Working from home
(n = 241)
M SD M SD t test (df)
1. Self-compassion 3.14 0.58 3.21 0.66  − 1.123 (396)
2. Mindful parenting 102.75 11.99 103.21 12.11  − 0.374 (396)
3. WIFG 4.80 1.43 4.47 1.57 2.128* (396)
4. FIWG 2.44 1.45 2.88 1.52  − 2.83** (396)
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*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

Discussion

During the first COVID-19 outbreak, restriction measures imposed a challenging experience for many working parents who had to work remotely, from home, while providing support and care for their children. The current study investigated the mediational role of work-family guilt in the association between parents’ self-compassion and mindful parenting during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Our results suggest that parents’ self-compassion is associated with lower levels of WIFG/FIWG and higher levels of mindful parenting. Our results also suggest that higher levels of guilt related to the conflict between work and family contexts were associated with a lower ability to be mindful in the relationship with children. Overall, it was found that parents’ higher levels of self-compassion were indirectly associated with higher levels of mindful parenting through WIFG/FIWG. These findings will be analyzed in further detail below.

Marital status was found to be significantly associated with FIWG, albeit with a small magnitude. Nevertheless, these results suggest that parents living with a partner tend to present less guilt related to family interference on work. Previous research indicates that two-parent families tend to present less job tension, role overload, and difficulty balancing work and family contexts than single parents (Minnotte, 2012). Another potential explanation for this finding is that partnered parents may have access to greater resources (e.g., number of adults in the household, emotional and financial support) than single parents, which allows them to experience less family interference on work conflict and consequently less guilt.

As expected, self-compassion was negatively associated with WIFG/FIWG. This significant relationship suggests that higher levels of parents’ compassion toward the self may decrease the experience of work-family conflict and reduce the experience of guilt associated with the work-family interface. Self-compassion seems to be a protective mechanism for excessive feelings of guilt in response to a difficult parenting event. Several studies (Neff, 2011; Terry et al., 2013) have shown that self-compassion helps parents overcome their negative emotions and alleviate negative feelings related to parenting (such as guilt). Corroborating self-compassion theorists (Neff, 2003), the adoption of a self-compassionate attitude by parents seems to allow them to experience higher levels of self-kindness when facing negative events or feelings of self-inadequacy, to look at their own negative parent experiences as a common human experience, and to have a warm and understanding perspective about their own painful thoughts and emotions. The results of this study seem to corroborate previous literature suggesting that self-compassion may help parents be more supportive and less critical of themselves and their parenting skills and behaviors. This, in turn, allows them to cope more adaptively with parenting challenges and adequately balance work and family contexts (Moreira et al., 2015b). Although the protective role of self-compassion on parents’ mental health and parenting outcomes has not yet been explored in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is some preliminary evidence that higher levels of self-compassion can decrease the likelihood of developing higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress (Gutiérrez-Hernández et al., 2021). Even though the effect size of the indirect relationship between self-compassion and FIWG is low, this model explains 10% of this variable. This low value may be justified by the existence of other factors that may explain the relationship between self-compassion and mindful parenting and that should be investigated in future studies.

Corroborating previous studies (Gouveia et al., 2016), it was also found that parents who adopt a compassionate self-to-self relationship reported higher levels of mindful parenting. Parents with higher levels of self-compassion may feel more confident and be more kind about their parenting behaviors and their ability to take care of a child. They may also be less judgmental about their own imperfections and limitations as parents and their child’s limitations and attributes, which is a key contributor toward the development of a mindful parenting approach (Duncan et al., 2009). These findings contribute to a growing body of research showing the association between self-compassion and mindful parenting (Gouveia et al., 2016), demonstrating that the adoption of a warm and accepting attitude by parents toward themselves contributes to a greater emotional awareness of their own and their children’s thoughts and emotions. Consequently, parents respond to and interact with their children in a more caring, warm, and nonjudgmental way.

The analysis of the differences between working conditions during the pandemic showed that there were only significant differences in guilt-related variables (WIFG and FIWG). The results indicate that mothers who were working in their workplace experienced higher levels of guilt related to the interference of work on family and that mothers who were working from home experienced higher levels of guilt related to the interference of family on work. As might be expected, there was a greater impact of work on the family when mothers were working outside the home and a greater interference of the family on work when mothers were working from home.

The results of this study offer new relevant data by suggesting that adopting a self-compassionate attitude toward the self by parents may act as an adaptive mechanism that reduces guilt associated with the work-family interface and consequently may lead to the adoption of a compassionate and nonjudgmental relationship with their children.

Limitations and Future Research

Our study has several limitations that should be noted. First, although these findings were supported by theory and previous literature, the cross-sectional design used in this study limits the inference of conclusions about causality. Therefore, future research should use a longitudinal design. Second, the disparity between genders with a higher portion of mothers did not allow exploring differences between genders in study variables. Future research should test the hypotheses presented here using different samples comprising an equal portion of mothers and fathers to overcome this limitation. Third, the exclusive use of self-report measures may compromise the validity of our results. Thus, future work should include a multimethod assessment strategy to corroborate these study conclusions. Finally, common method bias, a well-known phenomenon seen in research using self-reported measures, could contaminate the results of our study, since our measures came from the same source (Podsakoff et al., 2003). For instance, response patterns, social desirability, and priming effects may produce erroneous correlations between the constructs being tested. Using a variety of techniques or instruments in future research can avoid common method bias.

Nevertheless, the current findings have important strengths contributing to the study of mindful parenting in a pandemic context. Understanding which factors could explain the adoption of mindful parenting practices seems to be an important contribution to the development and improvement of intervention programs regarding mindful parenting for risk groups of the general population. This study contributes to community health promotion by identifying some of the enablers of mindful parenting. Specifically, these findings highlight the importance of parents developing a more self-compassionate attitude to help them deal with their feeling of guilt associated with work and family interfaces and this feeling’s impact on the adoption of mindful parenting approaches. One of the main contributions of this study is the possibility of showing that guilt related to work-family conflict can undermine the beneficial effect of self-compassion in mindful parenting. Previous studies had looked at other mediators, but none had yet investigated the effect of this type of guilt. Another contribution of this study is the possibility of providing suggestions for the intervention with parents. For example, it seems to be important to address issues related to the guilt that derives from the perceived interference of work on family and vice versa in a mindful parenting training, as this guilt seems to be factor that may have a negative impact on this parenting approach.

Since the transmission rate of COVID-19 is still high in many countries, these results emphasize the importance of taking into consideration the effect of school closures on parents and helping parents manage home working with their child’s homework and child care. Additionally, in a pandemic context, internet-based interventions focused on promoting parents’ self-compassion may be particularly relevant.

Author Contribution

ACG: designed the study, conducted the data analyses, and wrote the paper. BC: collaborated in the data collection. HM: designed the study and collaborated in the writing and editing of the final manuscript. All of the authors approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.

Data Availability

All data are available at Mendeley Data (https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/72tv59bwpm/1).

Declarations

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

All data are available at Mendeley Data (https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/72tv59bwpm/1).

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