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. 2023 Mar 15;5(2):fcad062. doi: 10.1093/braincomms/fcad062

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© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Change in startle responses over test times. In A, B, C, D and E, change in distance travelled (±1 SE) of each group relative to their respective baseline levels, at each stimulus, for each re-test time. In F, change in TDT (±1 SE) of each group relative to their respective baseline levels, at each re-test time (2: 5 min, 3: 30 min, 4: 60 min, 5: 5 h, and 6: 24 h). A 2 × 5 mixed-design ANOVA was performed to test if the baseline-relative change in TDT at all re-test times (5 min, 30 min, 60 min, 5 h and 24 h) would differ between the control group (n = 70) and the impacted (n = 72). As the data did not fulfil the parametric test assumptions of sphericity and homoscedasticity, corrected F statistics (Greenhouse–Geisser, Welch’s or Brown–Forsythe) were considered to determine statistical significance. No significant main effect of group was found (P > 0.05). The main effect of time was instead significant [F(3.707,518.937) = 7.114, P < 0.001]. However, the significant interaction between group and test time [F(3.707,518.937) = 5.158., P < 0.001] indicated that the effect of time was different for the control and impacted group. Two one-way repeated-measures ANOVAs were run to break down the interaction effect, analysing the effect of time (five levels) for the control and impacted groups separately. A significant effect of time [F(4,276) = 8.171, P < 0.001] was found on the baseline-relative change in TDT of the control group. Pairwise comparisons further indicated that the increase in TDT relative to baseline was significantly larger at Test Time 5 (5-h P-I, M = 10.28, SE = 1.78) than at Test Time 2 (5-min P-I, M = 4.44, SE = 1.15, P = 0.005), Test Time 3 (30-min P-I, M = 1.71, SE = 1.43, P < 0.001) and Test Time 4 (60-min P-I, M = 4.91, SE = 1.14, P = 0.037). The baseline-relative increase in TDT at Test Time 6 (24-h P-I, M = 6.64, SE = 1.65) was also significantly larger than at Test Time 3 (P = 0.03). The results of the ANOVA for the impact group also revealed a significant effect of time [F(3.296,234.048) = 5.134, P = 0.001] over the baseline-relative change in TDT. Pairwise comparisons further indicated a significantly larger (baseline-relative) increase in TDT at Test Time 4 (M = 5.34, SE = 2.14, P = 0.033) and Test Time 5 (M = 5.95, SE = 2.16, P = 0.032), compared to Test Time 2 (M = −1.95, SE = 2.03), when the TDT instead decreased relative to baseline. No further statistical differences at pairwise levels were found.