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. 2023 Mar 4;26(3):727–754. doi: 10.1007/s10071-023-01762-5

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Facial landmarks in dogs and humans (adapted from DogFACS and HumanFACS, respectively: Ekman et al. 2002a; Waller et al. 2013). The FACS systems are anatomically-based, standardised and objective methods of facial coding that avoid subjective labelling (e.g., "smile"). The position of facial landmarks in both species is arranged differently due to the variation in anatomical features such as skull shape, fat deposits, and hair coverage. For example, dogs do not have a forehead or eyebrows (anatomical features unique to humans) and instead have a frontal region and browridges. Pictures by Mouse23 from Pixabay.com (2021) and by Natalie Heathcoat from Unsplash.com (2021), free for commercial use