Table 2.

Optical detection of various viruses using nanomaterials

Nanomaterial	Nanomaterial size	Analyte	Biorecognition element	Method employed	Samples	Linear range	Limit of detection	Detection range	Label type	References
GNP	30–40 nm	HIV-1	DNA Oligonucleotides	SERS based LFA assay	HIV-1 DNA in buffer samples	8–64 ng/mL	0.24 pg/mL	0–64 ng/mL	Label	[63]
GNP	10 nm	Dengue-1 RNA	DENV probe	LFA	Human sera	0.01–0.06 µM	1.2 × 104pfu/mL	–	Label	[95]
Au@Fe3O4@SiO2 NP	–	HBV	HBsAg-specific aptamer	Chemiluminescence	Human serum samples	1–225 ng/mL	0.05 ng/mL	–	Label	[97]
Au/polyethylene naphthalate nano-popcorn substrate	64 nm	Influenza virus A	Influenza virus A specific aptamer	SERS	Clinical samples	–	97 pfu/mL	10–10000 pfu/mL	Label	[98]
GNP	20 nm	Human papillomavirus	RNA aptamer against HPV16 L1 protein	Colorimetric	Clinical samples and vaccine samples	9.6–201.6 ng/mL	9.6 ng/mL	–	Label	[105]
AgNP	4, 10 nm	Influenza virus	Aptamer specific to influenza virus	SERS	Samples containing virus	–	2 × 105 VP/mL	–	Label	[99]
GNP coated polystyrene latex	10 nm, 208 nm	Influenza virus H3 subtype	Anti-influenza virus mAb1	LFA	Virus containing samples diluted in buffer	1/32–32 HAU	0.016 HAU	–	Label	[100]
CdZnSeS/ZnSeS QD and GNP	5 ± 0.5 nm and 28.4 ± 1.5 nm	Influenza virus	Anti-HA antibody (Ab) against influenza virus	LSPR	Serum media	10−14–10−9 g/mL	65.1 fg/mL	–	–	[103]
rGO-PAMAM Dendrimer	–	Dengue Virus Type 2 E-Protein	Antibodies specific to DENV E-proteins is	SPR	Recombinant dengue virus type 2 E-proteins	–	0.08 pM	0.08–0.5 pM	Label free	[96]
GNP and magnetic NP hybrid nanocomposite with CdSeS QD	GNP-14.8 nm, Magnetic NP-40 nm,	Norovirus	Anti-norovirus genogroup II antibody	LSPR-magnetoimmu-nofluorescence	Clinical samples of feces containing norovirus	–	0.48 pg/mL	1 pg/mL to 5 ng/mL	–	[102]
Plasmonic molybdenum trioxide QD and graphitic carbon nitride QD	3–9 nm	Influenza virus	Antibody against influenza A virus	LSPR-magnetoimmuno-fluorescence	Clinically isolated influenza virus A/Yokohama (110/2009) (H3N2)	–	45 pfu/mL	45–25,000 pfu/mL	–	[101]

GNP Gold nanoparticles, HIV Human immunodeficiency virus, DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, SERS Surface enhanced Raman scattering, LFA Lateral flow assay, GaN Gallium nitride, Au Gold, Ag Silver, SiO₂ Silicon dioxide, Hbs Hepatitis B, DENV Dengue virus, SARS-CoV-2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus-2, LSPR Localised surface plasmon resonance, NS1 Non-structural protein 1, RNA Ribonucleic acid, HPV Human papilloma virus, AgNP Silver nanoparticles, QD Quantum dots, SPR Surface plasmon resonance, rGO Reduced graphene oxide, PAMAM Polyamidoamine, NP Nanoparticles, RBD Receptor binding domain, HAU Hemagglutination unit