Figure 2.

Biomaterial- and micro/nanotechnology-based delivery approaches for cell reprogramming. (A) Cell reprogramming has been achieved using various reprogramming factors. (B) Three major delivery modalities that have been applied for cell reprogramming include biological, physical, and chemical methods. (i) Biological delivery relies on genetically engineered viruses to transfer DNA constructs into cells. (ii) Physical delivery methods include membrane-disruption approaches to deliver reprogramming factors into the cytoplasm or nucleus. (iii) Chemical delivery methods employ lipids, natural or synthetic polymers, and inorganic or hybrid carriers. sgRNA, single guide RNA; AAV, Adeno-associated virus; BEP, bulk electroporation; MEP, microchannel electroporation; NEP, nanochannel electroporation; nanopenetration, nanostructure-mediated membrane penetration; NPs, nanoparticles.